ویکا

ویکا (یا جادوورزی (ویچکرافت Witchcraft یا کرافت))، عنوانی است که یک فرقهٔ جدید دینی را با آن می‌نامند.

محتویات [نمایش]
تاریخچه [ویرایش]

ویکاها نئوپاگان‌هایی هستند که بستر طبیعت را می‌پرستند. این فرقه در سال ۱۹۵۴ به دست جرالد گارنر، جادوگر انگلیسی تاسیس شد. طبیعت در فرهنگ ویکن‌ها به معنی هر چیزی است که بدون فشار و یا اجبار به وجود آمده باشد. رفتارهای غریزی و خدایانی که نماد این غرایز هستند مورد پرستش یعنی ستایش آنها واقع می‌شود. پیروی از غریزه و پایه قرار نهادن طبیعت بکر و بی شعور به عنوان ملاک رفتار خصیصه‌ای است که این فرقه را از همه مذاهبی که در آن مسک نفس وجود دارد متمایز می‌کند. و به دلیل اینکه پایه طبیعت است کتاب و نوشته‌های آنان به تجربیات شخصی علاقه خاصی نشان می‌دهد و برای تجربیات خاص خود یک دفتر جداگانه دارند که دفتر شهود و الهام هم به آن می‌گویند و گاه همین تجربیات را در دفتر اوراد و اذکار سحر به نام کتاب سایه‌ها می‌نگارند.



پنتاگرام، نماد ایمان که توسط بسیاری از ویکاها مورد استفاده قرار می‌گیرد.
کتاب [ویرایش]

کتاب این فرقه کتاب سایه‌ها نام دارد. که تقریرات جادوآموز از استاد خویش می‌باشد. و شامل اوراد و تعویذات سحر است.

ریشه اسم [ویرایش]

ویکا wicca یک لغت نصرانی است که به معنی شخص حکیم می‌باشد. البته بعضی ریشه آن رااز جادوگری می‌دانند و عده‌ای آن را مشتق از witan که انگلیسی قدیم است به معنی حکیم می‌دانند.

اعتقادات [ویرایش]



سلنا یکی از خدایان رومی معدود که توسط ویکاها پذیرفته شده
این فرقه به وجود شیطان و خدا اعتقاد ندارد و بستر طبیعت را می‌پرستند. ولی الهه و یا خدا را می‌پرستند هرچند این صورت الزامی نمی‌باشد. و بیشتر الهه زن را می‌پرستند و یک بستر اکوفمینیستی در این فرقه جریان دارد. همچنان که سلنا در تصویر از الهه‌های آنان است و لزومی ندارد که واقعیت خارجی داشته باشد. در اعتقاد ویکن‌ها طبیعت محوری و عمل بر طبق غریزه سفارش می‌شود و برخلاف دیگر مذاهب مسک نفس از غریزه توصیه نمی‌شود.

ویژگی‌ها [ویرایش]

از خصوصیات این فرقه:

عبادت خدا و الهه یا فقط الهه
اهمیت به زن و الهه زن و کاهن زن
مراسم سبت یا شنبه که بر می‌گردد به فرقه کابالیسم
اجرای مراسم توسط بعضی از آنها به صورت عریان انجام می‌شود
تعدا زیادی از آنان کتابی تحت عنوان کتاب سایه‌ها برای خود دارند که حاوی اوراد و سحرها خود می‌باشد و گاه در آن تجارب و خاطرات خود را هم می‌نویسند. البته بعضی دفترچه‌ای جداگانه تحت عنوان شهود برای تجارب خود دارند.
اخلاق ویکا [ویرایش]

ویکا فقط یک نصیحت دارد: «تا وقتی جنبنده‌ای را اذیت نمی‌کند هر چه در سر دارید بکنید.»

اقسام ویکا [ویرایش]

ویکای اسکندریه
ویکای دایانی
ویکای گاردنری
ویکای الکساندری
ویکای پریان
نمادها [ویرایش]

صلیب: همان صلیب مسیحیان است.
ستاره داوود: همان ستاره داوود یهودیان است.
ستاره پنج پر: ستاره پنج پر که ضلع آن رو به بالا باشد.
کتاب سایه ها: نوشته‌های جادویی و تجربیات شخصی را رد آن می‌نگارند.
بدر ماه و اعتدال‌های سالانه
خنجر در شراب
دو دایره رو به بالا: خدا
یک دایره وسط دو هلال چپ و راست: خدایان
هلال برعکس رو به خط: غروب ماه
هلال روی سطح رو به بالا: طلوع ماه
نیمدایره روی خط رو به پایین با فلش به سمت پایین: غروب خورشید
نیمدایره روی خط با فلش به سمت بالا: طلوع خورشید
balefire
broom stick
victory
love
war
[برای دیدن تصویر و اسم ۳۱ نماد ویکاها به این عکس دقت کنید][۱]
منبع [ویرایش]

ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی
ویکی‌پدیا عربی
در ویکی‌انبار پرونده‌هایی دربارهٔ ویکا موجود است.
رده‌های صفحه: ویکاپگانیسم دین‌های نوظهور سحر
قس عربی
بالإنکلیزیة Wicca: الویکا هی أشهر دیانة وثنیة جدیدة, تم اشهار الویکا فی سنة 1954 على ید جرلد غاردنر وهی الآن موجودة فی العدید من دول العالم. ادعى جرلد غاردنر ان الویکا هی استمرار لدیانة سحر التی استمرت بالسِر لمئات السنین, رجوعاً إلى الوثنیة ما قبل المسیحیة فی أوروبا, لهذا فان الویکا تسمى أحیاناً بالدیانة القدیمة. لا یمکن اثبات هذه الادعاءات بشکل موضوعی, ویظن المؤرخون انه تم تجمیع دیانة الویکا فی فترة ما بعد العشرینات. منذ ذلک الحین تفرّعت الویکا عدّة تقالید وتُوصف تلک التی حافظت على تعلیمات غاردنر بالکامل بـالویکا الغاردنیریة. شهدت الویکا مع الوقت تحوّلا أکبر نحو العلنیة بعدما کانت شبه سریة وبعض اسرار الویکا لا تزال سراً ولا یعرفها إلا من تم قبوله فی صفوف الویکا. تختلف المناهج بین تقلید ویکی وآخر وهناک أیضاً أقسام من الویکا التی لا تؤمن بمنهج معین. والویکا هی دین غیر هرمی ویمکن لأی شخص اعتناق الویکا من دون الحاجة لأی اثبات على الانتماء إلى مؤسسة دینیة للویکا.
محتویات [اعرض]
[عدل]جذر الاسم

ویأتی اسم هذه الدیانة من "wicce" من اللغة النرسیة وتعنی "شخص حکیم"، ولکن یرجع البعض إلى الاستخدام الإنکلیزی القدیم "wicca" وتعنی الساحر أو مشعوذ، أو کلمة "witan" من الإنکلیزیة القدیمة ومعناها حکیم أو حکیمة.


انتشار الویکا - ویکا عبر العالم
[عدل]المعتقدات

تختلف معتقدات أتباع الویکا بین تقلید وآخر لکنها تشترک فی عدد من الأمور الأساسیة مثل معتقدتهم حول الآلهة، التقمص، أخلاق الویکا والسحر.
[عدل]معتقدات الویکا حول الآلهة
من معتقدات الویکا عبادة إله وإلهة. ویُصوّر الإله فی ویکا عادة على صورة إله الخصب ذو القرنین فی الدیانات الوثنیة القدیمة مثل بعل، کما تصوّر الإلهة على صورة إلهة الحبّ والجمال والجنس فی الدیانات الوثنیة القدیمة مثل عشتار، وتُسمّى الإلهة عادة بالإلهة المثلثة فی إشارة إلى دورها المثلث کالعذراءوالأمّ والعجوز الحکیمة. بعض أتباع الویکا یستعملون صورة بافومیت کرمز للإله ما جعل بعض الدیانات الإبراهیمیة تتهم الویکا بعبادة الشیطان لکن أتباع الویکا لا یؤمنون بوجود الشیطان ویعتبرونه تسمیة مسیحیة لا علاقة لهم بها. ویؤمن بعض أتباع الویکا أن المقدّس یمکن أن یظهر أحیاناً على شکل آلهة متعدّدة لکن الإیمان بهذه الآلهة یتراوح بین مختلف أنواع الویکا بین عدّة مواقف، من الالحاد مروراً بالتوحید وصولاً إلى الإیمان بتعدد الآلهة ووحدة الوجود. وتعتبر الویکا أن کل الآلهة هی أوجه متعددة لنفس الإله والإلهة[1]. وبالتالی یمکن لمعتنق الویکا أن یعتبر أن الإلهة عشتار الکنعانیة والإلهة کالی الهندیة ومریم العذراء المسیحیة هی أوجه مختلفة للإلهة العلیا نفسها. وبعض أقسام الویکا تعتبر أن الإله والإلهة هما بدورهما وجهان للجوهر المقدّس نفسه الذی یقول عنه غاردنر أنه یبقى مجهولاً ویصفه بالمحرّک الأوّل[2]. ویصفه قادة آخرون فی الویکا مثل سکوت کانینغهام بـ"الواحد"[3]. وتقترب هذه النظرة من معتقدات الأدیان التوحیدیة. آخرون فی الویکا یملکون نظرة مختلفة ویعتبرون أنفسهم متعدّدی الآلهة أی یعبدون عدد من الآلهة ویعتبرونهم کآلهة مستقلة عن بعضها البعض. وهناک بعض أقسام من الویکا تعتبر أن الآلهة هی أمثلة علیا ونماذج فکریة رئیسیة وفقاً لمفهوم عالم النفس کارل یونغ عن النماذج الرئیسیة (بالإنکلیزیة Archtype). والمفهوم الأخیر یفسح المجال أمام الملحد أن یکون أیضاً من معتنقی الویکا[4]. مثل هذا الرأی عبّرت عنه کاهنة علیا فی الویکا، فیفیان کرولی بالقول أن آلهة الویکا هی "أمثلة علیا موجودة فی اللاوعی (الجماعی) یمکن إیثارها من خلال الطقوس"[5]. وتعتبر الویکا أن الإلهی هو موجود أیضاً فی العالم الفیزیائی، وبالتالی تقترب من مفاهیم الإحیائیة (بالإنکلیزیة Animism) ووحدة الوجود.
[عدل]معتقدات الویکا حول الموت والحیاة الثانیة
یُعرف عن الویکا أنها لا تعطی أهمیة کبیرة للحیاة الثانیة وترکّز بدلاً من ذلک على الحیاة الحالیة. ویصف المؤرّخ رونالد هاتون ذلک بالقول أن "الموقف الحدسی لمعظم أتباع الویکا هو أنه إذا قام الإنسان بأفضل ما فی وسعه خلال هذه الحیاة فی جمیع المجالات، فهو سیستفید من ذلک خلال الحیاة الثانیة بشکل أو بآخر، لذلک من الأفضل أن یرکّز على الحاضر"[6]. لکن رغم ذلک، تملک الویکا بعض المعتقدات حول الحیاة الثانیة. ویؤمن غالبیة أتباعها بالتقمص وهو انتقال الروح إلى جسد مولود حدیثاً بعد الموت. لکن المعتقدات حول تفاصیل ذلک تختلف بین تقالید وأخرى. فبعض التقالید تقول أن "الروح البشریة تتقمص فی الأجساد البشریة حصراً لعدّة حیوات لکی تتعلّم الدروس وتتقدّم روحیاً"[7]. لکن هنالک تقالید أخرى تعتبر أنه یمکن للروح أن تتقمّص فی فصائل حیّة أخرى کالحیوانات. وتقول الویکا أنه خلال الفترة بین تقمّص وآخر، ترتاح الروح فی العالم الآخر المعروف لدى الویکا باسم "أرض الصیف"[8] (بالإنکلیزیة Summerland). وبعض أتباع الویکا یعتبرون أنه یمکن الاتصال بالأرواح الموجودة فی العالم الآخر عبر الوسطاء الروحیین وخاصة على عید سوین الذی یتزامن مع عید هالووین فی الدول الغربیة. لکن بعض تقالید الویکا ترفض ذلک مثل مؤسس الویکا الاسکندریة ألکس ساندرس[9].
[عدل]معتقدات الویکا حول السحر
یؤمن غالبیة أتباع الویکا بالقدرة على التأثیر على العالمین المادی والروحی عبر السحر لکن مفهومهم له یختلف کثیراً عن المفهوم الشعبی السائد حوله. ومفهوم السحر لدى الویکا یتطابق إلى حد کبیر مع مفهوم السحر الشعائری الذی یُعرّفه آلیستر کراولی على أنه "علم وفنّ تغییر الواقع لیتماشى مع المشیئة"، والذی یعرّفه سامویل ماک کریغور ماثرز بأنه "علم التحکّم بالقوى الخفیة للطبیعة"[10]. ویعتمد الکثیر من أتباع الویکا تعریف الکاتبة البریطانیة دیون فورتون للسحر وهو أنه "فن وعلم التسبب بتغیّرات فی الوعی وفقاً للإرادة"[11]. ووفقاً لهذه التعریفات یعتبر أتباع الویکا أن السحر هو موجود فی الطبیعة ویحصل وفقاً لقوانینها ولیس بالتالی فوق الطبیعة بل هو "جزء من القوى الخارقة الموجودة فی العالم الطبیعی"[12]. وبعض الویکا یعتبرون أن السحر هو ببساطة استعمال الحواس الخمسة بشکل متفوّق لتحقیق نتائج[13].


السکین الشعائری الذی یستخدمه الویکا فی طقوسهم
وبعض تقالید الویکا تعتبر أنه لا یمکن للفرد أن یمارس السحر إلا بعد إنهاء تدریبه الرسمی على ید معلّمیه الذی یمکن أن یتراوح بین سنة ویوم واحد وعدّة سنوات. ویقوم أتباع الویکا بالسحر عبر استعمال الترکیز الذهنی والکلمات والطقوس والرموز وأحیاناً مع بعض الأدوات الأخرى مثل السکین الشعائری والمرجل والکریستال والأعشاب، ویکون هدفه عادة هو الشفاء، الحمایة من التأثیرات السلبیة، الخصوبة والنجاح فی الحیاة الشخصیة[14]. ولا یقوم أتباع الویکا بممارسة السحر الأسود أو ما یُعرف باللغة العربیة بالشعوذة، وعلى کل أتباع الویکا أن یقوموا بالسحر انطلاقاً من نوایا طیبة. وتمیّز بعض تقالید الویکا بین "السحر الأسود" الذی لا یمارسه أتباع الویکا و"السحر الأبیض" الذی یهدف لتحقیق تأثیرات إیجابیة[8]. ویعتبر بعض الباحثین حول الأدیان مثل رودنی ستارک وولیم باین بریدج أن معتقد السحر لدى الویکا کان "ردّة فعل على العلمنة عبر الغوص فی معتقدات السحر". لکن هناک مؤرخون ینتقدون هذا الرأی بشدة مثل رونالد هاتون الذی أشار إلى أن الحقائق تشیر إلى عکس ذلک لأن "عدد کبیر من الویکان یعملون فی طلیعة الوظائف العلمیة خاصة المعلوماتیة والکمبیوتر"[8].
[عدل]العناصر الخمسة فی معتقدات الویکا
تعطی دیانة الویکا مکانة رمزیة مهمة للعناصر الخمسة وفقاً للتصنیفات الفلسفیة والعلمیة القدیمة التی تعود لأرسطو. وهذه العناصر هی: النار، الهواء، الماء، الأرض (أو التراب)والأثیر (أو الروح) الذی یوحّد العناصر الأربعة السابقة وتعتبره الویکا بمثابة الجوهر المقدّس الذی یوحّد کل شیء. ولدى مختلف تقالید الویکا تفسیرات عدیدة حول معنى هذه العناصر، وهی أیضاً تفسّر رمز البنتغرام الذی تشیر کل زاویة منه لإحدى العناصر[15]. ویتم ذکر العناصر الخمسة فی الطقوس الدینیة، وبعض التقالید مثل الویکا الغاردنیریة تربط بین العناصر والاتجاهات الجغرافیة خلال طقوسها: الهواء مرتبط بالشرق، النار بالجنوب، المیاه بالغرب، والأرض فی الشمال والأثیر فی الوسط. وبعض تقالید الویکا تعتبر أن کل اتجاه جغرافی من هذه الاتجاهات یحکمه "حارس" أو "حارسة" یُعتبرون بمثابة أبناء الإله والإلهة الرئیسیان.
[عدل]طقوس وممارسات الویکا

تُعرّف الباحثة حول الوثنیة الجدیدة والکاهنة العلیا فی الویکا مارغوت أدلر الطقوس الوثنیة على أنها "وسیلة لإعادة إدماج الأفراد والجماعات وربط أنفسهم خلال نشاطات الحیاة الیومیة بمعناها الحالی، والمنسی غالباً"[16]. وتضیف أدلر أن الطقوس والاحتفالات فی الویکا "لیست تکرار تجارب جافة ورسمیة" بل تُقام بهدف حمل تجربة دینیة إلى المشارکین بها ورفع وعیهم"[16]. وتقول أن بعض الویکان یکونون متشکّکین تجاه وجود الآلهة، الحیاة الثانیة وهکذا مسائل، لکنهم یبقون فی الویکا بسبب التجارب الطقوسیة. وتقول نقلاً عن کاهنة أخرى أن الطقوس هی حول "الأسطورة، الحلم والتجربة الفنیة، الویکا هی المکان الذی یجمع کل ذلک: الجمال، العظمة، الموسیقى، الرقصة، الغناء والحلم"[17]. وتُعتبر الممارسات العملیّة فی الأدیان الوثنیة الجدیدة مثل الطقوس أهم من الاعتقادات والأساطیر القدیمة، ویقول أحد مؤرخی الأدیان الوثنیة أنه بالنسبة لها "الطقوس تأتی أولاً، ثم الأسطورة (المعتقدات)"[18].
[عدل]أعیاد الویکا
تُعرف أعیاد الویکا بمراسیم السبت، وهی ثمانیة(: سوین، بیلتَین، إمبولک، لاماس، لیثا، یول، أوستارا ومابون). وهناک أیضاً مراسیم الإسبات (على ظهور کل قمر جدید وبدر). ومراسم السبت هی بمعظمها احتفال بالتناغم مع الدورات الطبیعیة إذ تتزامن مراسیم السبت الأربعة الرئیسیة على أیام الانتقال من فصل إلى آخر، کأول أیام الربیع والصیف والخریف والشتاء
[عدل]مضمون الطقوس
یتم الاحتفال بالطقوس عادة على أعیاد الویکا. وتتنوّع الطقوس کثیراً بین مختلف أتباع الویکا حیث یمکن للأفراد أن یختاروا وینشأواالطقوس الخاصة بهم، لکن هنالک سمات مشترکة لمعظم الطقوس. ویتم عادة افتتاح الطقس بالقیام بتطهیر رمزی للمکان الذی یتم فیه الطقس من الطاقة السلبیة. وقد یتضمّن الطقس مناداة "حرّاس" الجهات الأربعة، صلوات للإلهة والإله، القیام بتعویذات سحریة، تمثیل رمزی للدورات الطبیعیة بین المواسم، موسیقى ورقص وأنواع مختلفة من الفنون. ویکون هنالک فی موقع الطقوس عادة طاولة تُوضع علیها تماثیل الإله والإلهة والأدوات الشعائریة.
بعض تقالید الویکا وخاصة الغاردینیریة یفضّل أعضاؤها القیام بالطقوس عراة، لکن ذلک لا یحمل معانی جنسیة بل یراه الویکان على أنه أمر طبیعی یمثّل تصالح الإنسان مع جسده.
بعض تقالید الویکا تقوم بطقوس ذات رمزیة جنسیة تحاکی الاتحاد بین الإله والإلهة.


مذبح ویکا - مثال عن طاولة شعائریة أو مذبح للویکا یتم استخدامه عادة للطقوس أو یُوضع فی مکان دائم فی المنزل لتکریم الإلهة والإله
[عدل]مراسیم المرور
یقوم الویکا بطقوس خاصة لمختلف مراحل الحیاة. أهمّها لدیهم هو طقس الدخول فی الویکا. فی بعض تقالید الویکا التی تقوم على ثلاث درجات یتم قبول الطالب فی الدرجة الأولى بعد سنة ویوم من التدریب والدراسة على ید کاهن أو کاهنة فی الویکا [19]. فی هذه التقالید، عندما یصل الویکان إلى الدرجة الثانیة یحق له إدخال أعضاء جدد إلى تقلیده، وحین یصل إلى الدرجة الثالثة یحق له إنشاء فروع مستقلّة للویکا[20]. لکن غالبیة تقالید الویکا الیوم تتبع نمط الإدخال الذاتی فی الویکا (بالإنکلیزیة Self initiation) حیث یقوم الفرد بنفسه باعتناق الویکا وباعتبار نفسه ویکان[21]. من أنواع مراسیم المرور الأخرى فی الویکا هی مراسیم الزواج (بالإنکلیزیة Handfasting) حیث تقوم کاهنة أو کاهن من الویکا بمراسیم الزواج. وهنالک أیضاً مراسیم للأطفال الحدیثی الولادة تُسمى "ویکانینغ"، والهدف من هذا الطقس هو الطلب من الإلهة والإله حمایة الطفل وعایته لکن لا یُعتبر الطفل على أنه من الویکا لان تقالید الویکا تشدّد على مبدأ الاختیار الذاتی للدین ومعظم المدارس فیها ترفض قبول من هم دون الثامنة عشر.
[عدل]کتاب الظل
لا یوجد فی الویکا نصّ مقدّس مثل القرآن فی الإسلام أو الإنجیل فی المسیحیة رغم وجود عدد من النصوص المهمّة التی یعتبرها الویکان مصدر إلهام لهم. ویستخدم أتباع هذه الدیانة کتاب أبیض الصفحات یطلقون علیه اسم کتاب الظل کدفتر یومیات یحتوی على أفکار وتعویذات والتعلیمات المنقولة للویکان من معلّمیهم ومعلّماتهم. لذلک کتاب الظلّ هو کتاب شخصی ویُمنع عادة أی شخص آخر من الإطلاع علیه، ویختلف مضمونه بین فرد وآخر.
[عدل]أخلاق الویکا

ترتکز الأخلاق الویکیة بشکل أساسی على "نصیحة الویکا" التی تقول: "افعل ما تشاء ولا تؤذی أحداً". وتُعتبر هذه النصیحة فی الویکا على أنها إعلان لحریة التصرف للفرد شرط عدم إیذاء الآخرین وتحمّل المسؤولیة التامة تجاه ما یفعله[22]. رکیزة أخرى فی أخلاق الویکا هی "قانون الثلاث" الشبیه بفلسفة الکارما الشرقیة، وهو یعنی أن کل ما یفعله المرء یعود إلیه ثلاث أضعاف، إن کان خیرا أم شرا[23]. بعض تقالید الویکا تستوحی أیضاً من الفضائل الثمانیة الواردة فی کتاب "مسؤولیة الإلهة" للکاهنة العلیا فی الویکا دورین فالیینتی، وهی: المرح، الاحترام، الشرف، التواضع، الصلابة، القوة، الجمال والتعاطف[24]. وهناک تقالید أخرى فی الویکا تتبع مجموعة من القوانین المعروفة بـ"قوانین الویکا" وعددها 30 فی الویکا الغاردنیریة و161 فی الویکا الاسکندریة ومعظمها متعلّق بکیفیة أداء الطقوس والتنظیم الداخلی لهذه التقالید. لکن هذه القوانین مثیرة للجدل الیوم فی أوساط الویکا ویعتبر بعض قادة الویکا أن جرالد غاردنر وضعها بعد خلاف مع الکاهنة العلیا عام 1957[25].


احتفال للویکا- خلال أحد احتفالات الویکا فی الولایات المتحدة
[عدل]تقالید الویکا

کلمة "تقلید" فی الویکا تشیر إلى التقلید الذی ینتمی إلیه الویکان من بین أصناف الویکا المختلفة. وکانت الویکا فی البدء تقتصر على تقلید واحد هو الذی أنشأه جرلد غاردنر لکن مع الوقت نمت داخل الویکا تقالید جدیدة حتى بات هنالک العدید من التقالید داخل هذه الدیانة الیوم. وتعتنق جمیع هذه التقالید معتقدات الویکا لکن هنالک فروقات طفیفة بین کلّ منها. لکن لیس بالضرورة أن ینتمی کل أتباع الویکا إلى تقلید محدّد لأن الویکا هی دین غیر منظّم لکن فیها حرکات منظّمة یمکن أن ینتمی إلیها معتنقو الویکا إذا ما أرادوا ذلک. ویُعرف أتباع الویکا الذین لا یتبعون تقلید محدد أو لا ینتظمون فی مجموعة بالانفرادیون. وبعض أتباع الویکا یمزجون بین تقالید مختلفة حتى أن لم تکن تلک التقالید ذات علاقة بدیانة الویکا، ویُعرف هؤلاء عادة باسم "الانتقائیون" لکن لا یشیر هذا الاسم إلى تعبیر سلبی بل إلى طریقة الفرد فی انتقاء ما یراه مناسباً من تقالید أو أدیان مختلفة. وتشیر الإحصاءات إلى أن ثلاثة أرباع أتباع الویکا والأدیان الوثنیة الجدیدة هم انفرادیون أی غیر منخرطین فی مجموعات منظّمة [26].
ومن تقالید الویکا المختلفة:
الویکا الإسکندریة
الویکا الدایانیة
الویکا الغاردنیریة
الویکا الجنیة
ویکا النجمة الزرقاء
شاهد المزید من الصور والملفات فی ویکیمیدیا کومنز حول: ویکا
[عدل]انتشار الویکا فی العالم

بعد إعلان الویکا فی الخمسینات انتشرت هذه الدیانة أولاً فی الجزر البریطانیة. وفی الستینات والسبعینات نمى عدد أتباعها فی الولایات المتحدة وکندا ثم انتشرت فی أسترالیا وأوروبا والهند والبرازیل وجنوب أفریقیا وعدد من الدول الأخرى فی العقود اللاحقة. وتشیر تقاریر صحافیة إلى انتشار محدود للویکا فی فلسطین المحتلّة وخاصة فی صفوف یهود سابقین[27]، وأشارت جریدة لبنانیة إلى أنه هنالک عدد من أتباع الدیانة فی لبنان[28]. ومن الصعب تقدیر العدد الحقیقی لأتباع الویکا لأنها دیانة غیر منظّمة ولأن العدید من أتباعها یخفون انتمائهم خوفاً من التمییز أو الاضطهاد[29]. ویقدّر الموقع المتخصص فی تقدیر عدد أتباع الدیانات Adherents.com عدد أتباع الویکا بین 800 ألف وملیون حول العالم[30]. وتُعتبر الویکا من الدیانات السریعة النموّ وتشیر بعض التقدیرات إلى أنها قد تصبح ثالث أکبر دیانة فی الولایات المتحدة بعد المسیحیة والیهودیة بحلول العام 2012[31].
[عدل]المصادر

^ Gallagher, Ann-Marie (2005). The Wicca Bible: the Definitive Guide to Magic and the Craft. New York: Sterling Publishing. ISBN 1-4027-3008-X
^ Gardner, Gerald B (1988) [1959]. The Meaning of Witchcraft. Lakemont, GA: Copple House Books. pp. 26–2.
^ Cunningham, Scott. Wicca: A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner.
^ Adler, Margot (1979). Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-worshippers and Other Pagans in America Today. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 25, 34–35. ISBN 0-8070-3237-9. OCLC 6918454
^ Crowley, Vivianne. Wicca: The Old Religion in the New Millennium. pp. 129.
^ Hutton, Ronald (1999). Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Withcraft. Oxford University Press. Page 39
^ Buckland, Raymond (1986). Buckland's Complete Book of Witchcraft. Saint Paul: Llewellyn. pp. 17, ISBN 0-87542-050-8. OCLC
↑ أ ب ت Hutton, Ronald (1999). Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Withcraft. Oxford University Press. Page 392
^ Farrar, Stewart. What Witches Do. pp. 88.
^ Valiente, Doreen (1973). An ABC of Witchcraft Past and Present. Hale. pp. 231.
^ John Michael Greer, The Druidry Handbook: Spiritual Practice Rooted in the Living Earth, p 126, Weiser Publications 2006, ISBN 1-57863-354-0
^ Adler, Margot (2006). Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-worshippers and Other Pagans in America Today. Penguin. Page 158
^ Adler, Margot (2006). Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-worshippers and Other Pagans in America Today. Penguin. Page 159.
^ Gallagher, Ann-Marie (2005). The Wicca Bible. Godsfield. pp. 250 to 265.
^ Valiente, Doreen (1988) [1973]. An ABC of Witchcraft Past and Present. Custer: Phoenix Publishing. pp. 264. ISBN 0-919345-77-8.
↑ أ ب Adler, Margot (2005 [1979]). Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-worshippers and Other Pagans in America. Penguin. pp. 164.
^ Adler, Margot (2005 [1979]). Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-worshippers and Other Pagans in America. Penguin. pp. 172.
^ Adler, Margot (2005 [1979]). Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-worshippers and Other Pagans in America. Penguin. pp. 173.
^ Simpson, Jacqueline (2005). "Witching Culture: Folklore and Neo-Paganism in America". Folklore 116.
^ Stewart, Farrar. The Witches' Way.Chapter III - Third Degree Initiation
^ Huson, Paul (1970). Mastering Witchcraft: A Practical Guide for Witches, Warlocks and Covens. New York: Putnum. pp. 22–23. OCLC 79263
^ Harrow, Judy (1985) "Exegesis on the Rede" in Harvest vol. 5, Number 3 (Oimelc 1985). Retrieved 2007-02-26.
^ Lembke, Karl (2002) The Threefold Law
^ Farrar, Janet; and Stewart Farrar (May 1992) [1981]. Eight Sabbats for Witches. London: Robert Hale Publishing. ISBN 0-7090-4778-9. OCLC 26673966
^ Valiente, Doreen (1989). The Rebirth of Witchcraft. London: Robert Hale Publishing. pp. 70–71. ISBN 0-7090-3715-5. OCLC 59694320
^ Helen A. Berger, Are Solitaries The Future Of Paganism? August 23, 2010, Patheos.com, URL: http://www.patheos.com/Resources/Additional-Resources/Solitaries-The-Future-Of-Paganism.html, last checked on 2/9/2010.
^ Ofri Ilani, Paganism returns to the Holy Land, Haaretz Newspaper, 22.03.09, URL: http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/paganism-returns-to-the-holy-land-1.272627 - accessed on 15 September 2010.
^ الباطنیون والوثنیون فی لبنان، هذه هی معتقداتنا، هانی نعیم، جریدة السفیر اللبنانیة، عدد الأربعاء 31 آذار 2010، على الانترنت: http://www.assafir.com/WeeklyArticle.aspx?EditionId=1498&WeeklyArticleId=66440&ChannelId=8749، آخر زیارة بتاریخ 15 أیلول 2010.
^ Bonewits, I (2005)How Many "Pagans" Are There?
^ Adherents.com Statistical summary pages: W Accessed 12 December 2007.
^ Christians and Pagans Agree, Wicca Emerging as America's Third Religion, (PRWEB) April 21, 2005, URL: http://www.prweb.com/releases/2005/4/prweb231351.htm، accessed on: 13 September 2010.
تصنیفات: ویکا وثنیة
قس ترکس استانبولی
Vika neopaganizm içerisinde yer alan doğa tabanlı en geniş inanıştır. Bu terim 1954 yılında bir ingiliz kamu personeli olan Gerald Gardner tarafından popüler hale getirildi.
Wica sözcüğü ilk olarak Altın Şafak Hermetik Cemiyeti üyesi olan Gerald Gardner'ın 1954 çıkışlı Günümüzde Cadılık(Witchcraft Today) adlı kitabında geçmiştir. Yine de bu sözcüğün kökeni daha farklıdır, Gerald Gardner tarafından üretilmiş bir kelime değildir. Ancak Gerald Gardner bu kelimeyle dinselleştirilmiş bir Cadılık'ı ifade etmek istemiştir, günümüzde din olarak karşımıza çıkan Vika'yı değil.
Bu kelime Eski İngilizce'de yer alan wicca sözcüğünden gelmiştir. Wicca ve onun feminen formu olan wice modern İngiliz cadılarının geçmişteki sıfatlarıydı.
Wicca kelimesi Gerald Gardner tarafından kullanılmamıştır. Ve bu sözcük uzun bir süreye dek hem sıfat hem de isim olarak kullanılmıyordu. Ama şimdi bu kelime yaygın olarak Vika inananlarını nitelemek için kullanılıyor.
Temelleri:
Tanrıça ve eşi Tanrı’ya tapılır. Ancak bunlar geleneksel olarak Üçlü Tanrıça ve Boynuzlu Tanrı'dır. Ama her zaman ve her gelenekte böyle olmak zorunda değildir.
Vikan Nasihatı izlenir: Ne istersen yap, hiç kimseye zarar vermediğin sürece.
Üçkat Yasası’na inanılır: İyi veya kötü herhangi bir eylemde bulunan bir kişiye, bu eyleminin sonuçları, bu eylemleri yaptığı hayatında üç katı olarak geri döner.
Doğaya değer verilir ve tekrarbedenlenme benimsenmiştir.
Yılın döngüsünde diğer günlerden ayrı özellikler gösteren sekiz Sabbat günü kutlanır. Bu sabbatların dördü ana diğer dördü ise aradır. Yani hepsi aynı özellikleri taşımaz. Amaç mevsim geçişlerini kısacası doğanın hareketliliğini kutlamaktır.
Tanrıça, Yüksek Rahibe tarafından temsil edilir. Tanrı’yı ise Yüksek Rahip temsil etmektedir.
Yüksek Rahibe ve Yüksek Rahip, kovan adı verilen genellikle 13 kişilik olan Vikan topluluğunun başıdır.
Kovan hiyerarşisi birbirinden en az 1 yıl ve 1 günlük süreyle ayrılan 3 terfi seviyesinden oluşur. Ancak bazı gelenekler inisiyasyon öncesi sınıflarda oluşturmuştur. Bu sınıflar inisiyasyondan önce kişiyi daha hazır hale getirmek içindir. Tabii ki her gelenekte farklıdır.
Ancak 3. dereceden inisiye olan bir Vikan Yüksek Rahibe veya Yüksek Rahip olabilir.
Erkek üye, Yüksek Rahibe; kadın üye ise Yüksek Rahip tarafından kovana kabul görür ve kabul gören üye, cadılığa “mükemmel sevgi ve mükemmel güven” ile katılır. “Mükemmel sevgi ve mükemmel güven” ise yine Vikan Nasihati'nde yer alır.
Ayinler daire içinde, geleneksel olarak gökgiyimli olarak yani çıplak olarak gerçekleşir fakat çıplaklık yaygın olarak yerini ayinsel kıyafetlere bırakmıştır.
Cadılık ve Vika arasındaki farklar [değiştir]

Cadılık bir uygulamadır. Vika ise bugün 6 milyon kişi tarafından benimsenmiş bir dindir.
Her Vikan, cadı olmak zorunda değildir yani cadılığa ilişkin bir uygulama yapmak zorunda değildir.
Cadılıkla uğraşan kişi Vika kurallarını gözardı edebilirken, bir Vikan bu kurallara dini gereği uymak zorundadır.
Uluslararası Terimler [değiştir]

Bu konuda uluslararası alanda ayrıntılı bilgi toplamak isteyenler için bazı terimlerin İngilizce çevirileri:
Vika: Wicca, Vikan: Wiccan, Tanrıça ve Boynuzlu Tanrı: Goddess and the Horned God,
Vikan Nasihatı: Wiccan Rede, Üçkat Yasası: Threefold Law, Sabbatlar: Sabbats,
Yüksek Rahibe ve Yüksek Rahip: High Priestess and High Priest, Kovan: Coven,
Yeni üye: Initiate, Kovana kabul: Initiation, Tekrarbedenlenme: Reincarnation.
Belirtmek gerekir ki, initiate ve initiation, yeni üye ve kovana kabul anlamında sadece kovana dahil olacak olan Vikan için kullanılır, münferit cadı için, initiate kelimesi başlayan; initiation ise başlama töreni veya başlama anlamına gelmektedir.
Ayrıca bakınız [değiştir]

Modern Cadılık:Wicca
Doğa ve Doğanın Özü
Gnoxis Paranormal Kaynaklar
Altın Şafak Hermetik Cemiyeti
Kategori: Neopaganizm
قس انگلیسی
Wicca (English pronunciation: /ˈwɪkə/) is a modern pagan religion that draws upon a diverse set of ancient pagan religious motifs for its theological structure and ritual practice. The religion usually incorporates the practice of witchcraft. Developed in England in the first half of the 20th century,[1] Wicca was later popularised in the 1950s and early 1960s by Gerald Gardner. Gardner was a retired British civil servant, and an amateur anthropologist and historian who had a broad familiarity with pagan religions, esoteric societies and occultism in general. At the time Gardner called it the "witch cult" and "witchcraft", and referred to its adherents as "the Wica".[2][non-primary source needed] From the 1960s onward, the name of the religion was normalised to "Wicca".[3]
Wicca is traditionally and primarily a duotheistic religion centered upon the idea of gender polarity and the worship of a Moon Goddess and a Horned God. (This core theology was originally described by Gerald Gardner, the founder of the religion; and Doreen Valiente, who wrote most of the original liturgical materials.) The Goddess and the God may be regarded as the Divine Feminine and the Divine Masculine. They are complementary opposites, similar to the ideas of Yin and yang in Taoism. The God and Goddess are generally seen as lovers and equals, the Divine Couple who together co-create the cosmos. (See Wiccan views of divinity.)
In addition to the core duotheism of Wicca, however, there are several other theological positions possible, including pantheism, polytheism, and henotheism; and even, for Dianic feminist witches, a form of monothestic goddess worship. These various theological perspectives are not necessarily regarded as mutually exclusive, and any individual Wiccan may shift from one perspective to another, or combine two or more perspectives together in one ritual. The metaphysical flexibility that allows for embracing more than one theological perspective at a time may seem paradoxical; but it is a common feature of Wicca as a mystery religion.
Wicca also involves the ritual practice of magic, ranging from the "low magic" or "folk magic" of shamanism and witchcraft to more elaborate and complex rites influenced by the ceremonial magic of the Western Hermetic Tradition. Wiccans frequently subscribe to a broad code of morality known as the Wiccan Rede, although this is not taken literally or even adhered to by all Wiccans. Another characteristic of Wiccan religion is the ritual celebration of the lunar and solar cycles. Lunar rites, known as esbats are usually held around the time of the full moon; but they may also be held at the new moon, or the waxing or waning moon. The solar or seasonal festivals, known as sabbats take place eight times a year, in regular intervals known as the Wheel of the Year. While both the God and the Goddess are usually honored at both kinds of rituals, the Goddess is mainly associated with the Moon, and the God is mainly associated with the Sun.
There are various denominations within Wicca, which are referred to as traditions. Some, such as Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca, follow in the initiatory lineage of Gardner. Others, such as Cochrane's Craft, Feri and the Dianic tradition, take primary influence from other figures and may not insist on any initiatory lineage.
The application of the word Wicca has given rise to "a great deal of disagreement and infighting".[4] Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca are often collectively termed British Traditional Wicca, and many of their practitioners consider the term Wicca to apply only to these lineaged traditions. Others do not use the word "Wicca" at all, instead preferring to be referred to only as "Witchcraft," while others believe that all modern witchcraft traditions can be considered "Wiccan."[5][6] Popular culture, as seen in T.V. programmes like Buffy the Vampire Slayer tends to use the terms “Wiccan” and "Wicca" as completely synonymous with the terms “Witch” and “Witchcraft” respectively.
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[edit]Beliefs

Wiccan beliefs vary markedly between different traditions and individual practitioners. However, various commonalities exist between these disparate groups, which usually include views on theology, the afterlife, magic and morality.
[edit]Theology
Main article: Wiccan views of divinity


Altar statues of the Horned God and Mother Goddess as crafted by Bel Bucca, and owned by the 'Mother of Wicca', Doreen Valiente.
Wiccan views on theology are numerous and varied and there is no overall religious canon, but one form is to venerate both a god and a "Triple Goddess". These two deities are variously understood through the frameworks of pantheism (as being dual aspects of a single godhead), duotheism (as being two polar opposites), hard polytheism (being two distinct deities in a larger pantheon which includes other pagan gods) or soft polytheism (being composed of many lesser deities). In some pantheistic and duotheistic conceptions, deities from diverse cultures may be seen as aspects of the Goddess or God.[6] However, there are also other theological viewpoints to be found within the Craft, including monotheism, the concept that there is just one deity, which is seen by some, such as Dianic Wiccans, as being the Goddess, whilst by others, like the Church and School of Wicca, as instead being genderless. There are other Wiccans who are atheists or agnostics, not believing in any actual deity, but instead viewing the gods as psychological archetypes of the human mind which can be evoked and interacted with.[citation needed]
According to the Witches Janet and Stewart Farrar, who held a pantheistic, duotheistic and animistic view of theology, Wiccans "regard the whole cosmos as alive, both as a whole and in all of its parts", but that "such an organic view of the cosmos cannot be fully expressed, and lived, without the concept of the God and Goddess. There is no manifestation without polarization; so at the highest creative level, that of Divinity, the polarization must be the clearest and most powerful of all, reflecting and spreading itself through all the microcosmic levels as well".[7]
[edit]The God and the Goddess
For most Wiccans, the God and Goddess are seen as complementary polarities in the universe that balance one another out, and in this manner they have been compared to the concept of yin and yang found in Taoism.[8] As such they are often interpreted as being "embodiments of a life-force manifest in nature"[9] with some Wiccans believing that they are simply symbolic of these polarities, whilst others believing that the God and the Goddess are genuine beings that exist independently. The two divinities are often given symbolic associations, with the Goddess commonly being symbolised as the Earth (i.e. Mother Earth), but also sometimes as the Moon, which complements the God being viewed as the Sun.[10]
"The Gods are real, not as persons, but as vehicles of power. Briefly, it may be explained that the personification of a particular type of cosmic power in the form of a God or Goddess, carried out by believers and worshippers over many centuries, builds that God-form or Magical Image into a potent reality on the Inner Planes, and makes it a means by which that type of cosmic power may be contacted."
Gerald Gardner (1959)[11]
Traditionally the God is viewed as a Horned God, associated with nature, wilderness, sexuality, hunting and the life cycle.[12] The Horned God is given various names according to the tradition, and these include Cernunnos, Pan, Atho and Karnayna.
At other times the God is viewed as the Green Man,[13] a traditional figure in European art and architecture, and they often interpret him as being associated with the natural world. The God is also often depicted as a Sun God,[14] particularly at the festival of Litha, or the summer solstice. Another expression of the God is that of the Oak King and the Holly King, one who rules over winter and spring, the other who rules over summer and autumn.[13]
The Goddess is usually portrayed as a Triple Goddess, thereby being a triadic deity comprising a Maiden goddess, a Mother goddess, and a Crone goddess, each of whom has different associations, namely virginity, fertility and wisdom.[15] She is also commonly depicted as a Moon Goddess,[16] and is often given the name of Diana after the ancient Roman deity. Some Wiccans, particularly from the 1970s onwards, have viewed the Goddess as the more important of the two deities, who is pre-eminent in that she contains and conceives all. In this respect, the God is viewed as the spark of life and inspiration within her, simultaneously her lover and her child.[17] This is reflected in the traditional structure of the coven.[18] In one monotheistic form of the Craft, Dianic Wicca, the Goddess is the sole deity, a concept that has been criticised by members of other more egalitarian traditions.
According to Gerald Gardner, "the Goddess" is a deity of prime importance, along with her consort the Horned God. In the earliest Wiccan publications, she is described as a tribal goddess of the witch community, neither omnipotent nor universal, and it was recognised that there was a greater "Prime Mover", although the witches did not concern themselves much with this being.[19]
The concept of having a religion venerating a Horned God accompanying a goddess had been devised by the Egyptologist Margaret Murray during the 1920s. She believed, based upon her own theories about the Early Modern witch trials in Europe, that those two deities, though primarily the Horned God, had been worshipped by a Witch-Cult ever since western Europe had succumbed to Christianity. Whilst now widely discredited, Gerald Gardner was a supporter of her theory, and believed that Wicca was a continuation of that historical Witch-Cult, and that the Horned God and Goddess were therefore ancient deities of the British Isles.[20] Modern scholarship has disproved his claims, however various horned gods and mother goddesses were indeed worshipped in the British Isles during the ancient and early mediaeval periods.[21]
[edit]Pantheism, Polytheism and Animism


A sculpture of the Horned God of Wicca found in the Museum of Witchcraft in Boscastle, Cornwall.
Many Wiccans believe that the God and Goddess are merely two aspects of the same godhead, often viewed as a pantheistic deity, thereby encompassing everything in the universe within its divinity. In his public writings, Gardner referred to this being as the Prime Mover, and claimed that it remained unknowable,[22] although in the rituals of his tradition, Gardnerianism, it is referred to as Dryghten,[23] which had originally been an Old English term meaning The Lord. Since then it has been given other names by different Wiccans, for instance Scott Cunningham called it by its name in Neo-Platonism, The One.[24] Other Wiccans such as Starhawk use the term Star Goddess to describe the universal pantheistic deity that created the cosmos, and regard her as a knowable deity that can and should be worshipped.[25][26]
As well as pantheism and duotheism, many Wiccans accept the concept of polytheism, thereby believing that there are many different deities. Some accept the view espoused by the occultist Dion Fortune that "all gods are one god, and all goddesses are one goddess" —that is that the gods and goddesses of all cultures are, respectively, aspects of one supernal God and Goddess. With this mindset, a Wiccan may regard the Germanic Eostre, Hindu Kali, and Christian Virgin Mary each as manifestations of one supreme Goddess and likewise, the Celtic Cernunnos, the ancient Greek Dionysus and the Judeo-Christian Yahweh as aspects of a single, archetypal god. A more strictly polytheistic approach holds the various goddesses and gods to be separate and distinct entities in their own right. The Wiccan writers Janet Farrar and Gavin Bone have postulated that Wicca is becoming more polytheistic as it matures, tending to embrace a more traditionally pagan worldview.[27] Some Wiccans conceive of deities not as literal personalities but as metaphorical archetypes or thoughtforms, thereby technically allowing them to be atheists.[28] Such a view was purported by the High Priestess Vivianne Crowley, herself a psychologist, who considered the Wiccan deities to be Jungian archetypes that existed within the subconscious that could be evoked in ritual. It was for this reason that she said that "The Goddess and God manifest to us in dream and vision."[29]
Wicca is essentially an immanent religion, and for some Wiccans, this idea also involves elements of animism. A belief central to Wicca is that the Goddess and the God (or the goddesses and gods) are able to manifest in personal form, most importantly through the bodies of Priestesses and Priests via the rituals of Drawing down the Moon or Drawing down the Sun.
[edit]Afterlife
Belief in the afterlife varies among Wiccans,[30] although reincarnation is a traditional Wiccan teaching dating back to the New Forest coven in the 1930s. The influential High Priest Raymond Buckland said that a human's soul reincarnates into the same species over many lives in order to learn lessons and advance spiritually,[31] but this belief is not universal, as many Wiccans believe in the reincarnation of the soul through different species. However, a popular saying amongst Wiccans is that "once a witch, always a witch", indicating a belief that Wiccans are the reincarnations of previous witches.[32]
Typically, Wiccans who believe in reincarnation believe that the soul rests between lives in the Otherworld or Summerland, known in Gardner's writings as the "ecstasy of the Goddess".[33] Many Wiccans believe in the ability to contact the spirits of the dead who reside in the Otherworld through spirit mediums and ouija boards, particularly on the Sabbat of Samhain, though some disagree with this practice, such as the High Priest Alex Sanders, who stated that "they are dead; leave them in peace."[34] This belief was likely influenced by Spiritualism, which was very popular at the time of Wicca's emergence, and with which Gardner and other early Wiccans such as Buckland and Sanders had some experience.[35]
Despite some belief therein, Wicca does not place an emphasis on the afterlife, focusing instead on the current one; as the historian Ronald Hutton remarked, "the instinctual position of most [Wiccans], therefore, seems to be that if one makes the most of the present life, in all respects, then the next life is more or less certainly going to benefit from the process, and so one may as well concentrate on the present".[33]
[edit]Magic
Many Wiccans believe in magic, a force they see as being capable of manipulation through the practice of witchcraft or sorcery. Some spell it "magick", a variation coined by the influential occultist Aleister Crowley, though this spelling is more commonly associated with Crowley's religion of Thelema than with Wicca. Indeed, many Wiccans agree with the definition of magic offered by ceremonial magicians,[36] such as Aleister Crowley, who declared that magic was "the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with will", whilst another prominent ceremonial magician, MacGregor Mathers stated that it was "the science of the control of the secret forces of nature".[36] Many Wiccans believe magic to be a law of nature, as yet misunderstood or disregarded by contemporary science,[36] and as such they do not view it as being supernatural, but being a part of the "super powers that reside in the natural" according to Leo Martello.[37] Some Wiccans believe that magic is simply making full use of the five senses that achieve surprising results,[37] whilst other Wiccans do not claim to know how magic works, merely believing that it does because they have observed it to be so.[33]
"The point [of magic in Witchcraft] is to make the "bendable" world bend to your will... Unless you possess a rock-firm faith in your own powers and in the operability of your spell, you will not achieve the burning intensity of will and imagination which is requisite to make the magic work."
Paul Huson (1970)[38]
Wiccans cast spells or workings during ritual practices, often held inside a sacred circle, in an attempt to bring about real changes in the physical world (these rituals are further explained in the "Ritual practices" section below). Common Wiccan spells include those used for healing, for protection, fertility, or to banish negative influences.[39] Many early Wiccans, such as Alex Sanders, Sybil Leek and Doreen Valiente, referred to their own magic as "white magic", which contrasted with "black magic", which they associated with evil and Satanism. Sanders also used the similar terminology of "left hand path" to describe malevolent magic, and "right hand path" to describe magic performed with good intentions;[33] terminology that had originated with the occultist Madame Blavatsky in the 19th century. Some modern Wiccans however have stopped using the white-black magic and left-right hand path dichotomies, arguing for instance that the colour black should not necessarily have any associations with evil.[40]
The scholars of religion, Rodney Stark and William Bainbridge, claimed, in 1985, that Wicca had "reacted to secularisation by a headlong plunge back into magic" and that it was a reactionary religion which would soon die out. This view was heavily criticised in 1999 by the historian Ronald Hutton, who claimed that the evidence displayed the very opposite, that "a large number [of Wiccans] were in jobs at the cutting edge [of scientific culture], such as computer technology."[33]
[edit]Morality
Main article: Wiccan morality
"Bide the Wiccan laws ye must, in perfect love and perfect trust... Mind the Threefold Law ye should - three times bad and three times good... Eight words the Wiccan Rede fulfill - an it harm none, do what ye will."
Lady Gwen Thompson[41]
There exists no dogmatic moral or ethical code followed universally by Wiccans of all traditions, however a majority follow a code known as the Wiccan Rede, which states "an it harm none, do what ye will". This is usually interpreted as a declaration of the freedom to act, along with the necessity of taking responsibility for what follows from one's actions and minimising harm to oneself and others.[42] Another common element of Wiccan morality is the Law of Threefold Return which holds that whatever benevolent or malevolent actions a person performs will return to that person with triple force, or with equal force on each of the three levels of body, mind and spirit,[43] similar to the eastern idea of karma. The Wiccan Rede was introduced into Wicca by Gerald Gardner and formalized publicly by Doreen Valiente, one of his High Priestesses. The Threefold Law was an interpretation of Wiccan ideas and ritual, made by Monique Wilson[44] and further popularized by Raymond Buckland, in his books on Wicca.
Many Wiccans also seek to cultivate a set of eight virtues mentioned in Doreen Valiente's Charge of the Goddess,[45] these being mirth, reverence, honour, humility, strength, beauty, power and compassion. In Valiente's poem, they are ordered in pairs of complementary opposites, reflecting a dualism that is common throughout Wiccan philosophy. Some lineaged Wiccans also observe a set of Wiccan Laws, commonly called the Craft Laws or Ardanes, 30 of which exist in the Gardnerian tradition and 161 of which are in the Alexandrian tradition. Valiente, one of Gardner's original High Priestesses, argued that the first thirty of these rules were most likely invented by Gerald Gardner himself in mock-archaic language as the by-product of inner conflict within his Bricket Wood coven - [46][47] the others were later additions made by Alex Sanders during the 1960s.
Although Gerald Gardner initially demonstrated an aversion to homosexuality, claiming that it brought down "the curse of the goddess",[48] it is now generally accepted in all traditions of Wicca, with certain groups like the Minoan Brotherhood openly crafting their philosophy around it,[49] and various important figures in the Craft, such as Alex Sanders and Eddie Buczynski, being openly homosexual or bisexual.
[edit]Five elements


Five Elements with Pentagram
In certain traditions, there is a belief in the five classical elements, although unlike in ancient Greece, they are seen as symbolic as opposed to literal; that is, they are representations of the phases of matter. These five elements are invoked during many magical rituals, notably when consecrating a magic circle. The five elements are air, fire, water and earth, plus aether (or spirit), which unites the other four.[50] Various analogies have been devised to explain the concept of the five elements; for instance, the Wiccan Ann-Marie Gallagher used that of a tree, which is composed of earth (with the soil and plant matter), water (sap and moisture), fire (through photosynthesis) and air (the creation of oxygen from carbon dioxide), all of which are believed to be united through spirit.[6]
"Darksome Night and Shining Moon,
East and South and West and North,
Hearken to the Witches' Rune;
Hear me now, I call thee forth."
Doreen Valiente
Traditionally in the Gardnerian Craft, each element has been associated with a cardinal point of the compass; air with east, fire with south, water with west, earth with north and the spirit with centre.[6] However, some Wiccans, such as Frederic Lamond, have claimed that the set cardinal points are only those applicable to the geography of southern England, where Wicca evolved, and that Wiccans should determine which directions best suit each element in their region, for instance, those living on the east coast of North America should invoke water in the east and not the west because the colossal body of water, the Atlantic ocean, is to their east.[51] Other Craft groups have associated the elements with different cardinal points, for instance Robert Cochrane's Clan of Tubal Cain associated earth with south, fire with east, water with west and air with north,[52] and each of which were controlled over by a different deity who were seen as children of the primary Horned God and Goddess. The five elements are symbolised by the five points of the pentagram, the most prominently used symbol of Wicca.[53]
[edit]Practices

The Neopagan researcher and High Priestess Margot Adler, who defined ritual as being "one method of reintegrating individuals and groups into the cosmos, and to tie in the activities of daily life with their ever present, often forgotten, significance" noted that rituals, celebrations and rites of passage in Wicca are not "dry, formalised, repetitive experiences", but are performed with the purpose of inducing a religious experience in the participants, thereby altering their consciousness.[54] She noted that many Wiccans remain skeptical about the existence of the gods, afterlife etc but remain involved in the Craft because of its ritual experiences, with one, Glenna Turner, saying that "I love myth, dream, visionary art. The Craft is a place where all of these things fit together - beauty, pageantry, music, dance, song, dream."[55]
The High Priest and Craft historian Aidan Kelly claimed that the practices and experiences within Wicca were actually far more important than the beliefs, stating that "it's a religion of ritual rather than theology. The ritual is first; the myth is second. And taking an attitude that the myths of the Craft are 'true history' in the way a fundamentalist looks at the legends of Genesis really seems crazy. It's an alien head-space."[56] It is for this reason that Adler stated that "ironically, considering the many pronouncements against Witchcraft as a threat to reason, the Craft is one of the few religious viewpoints totally compatible with modern science, allowing total scepticism about even its own methods, myths and rituals".[57]
[edit]Ritual practices


An athame, used in Wiccan ritual practices.
Main article: Magical tools in Wicca
There are many rituals within Wicca that are used when celebrating the Sabbats, worshipping the deities and working magic. Often these take place on a full moon, or in some cases a new moon, which is known as an Esbat. In typical rites, the coven or solitary assembles inside a ritually cast and purified magic circle. Casting the circle may involve the invocation of the "Guardians" of the cardinal points, alongside their respective classical elements; air, fire, water and earth. Once the circle is cast, a seasonal ritual may be performed, prayers to the God and Goddess are said, and spells are sometimes worked. These rites often include a special set of magical tools. These usually include a knife called an athame, a wand, a pentacle and a chalice, but other tools include a broomstick known as a besom, a cauldron, candles, incense and a curved blade known as a boline. An altar is usually present in the circle, on which ritual tools are placed and representations of the God and the Goddess may be displayed.[58] Before entering the circle, some traditions fast for the day, and/or ritually bathe. After a ritual has finished, the God, Goddess and Guardians are thanked and the circle is closed.
A sensationalised aspect of Wicca, particularly in Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca, is the traditional practice of working in the nude, also known as skyclad. This practice seemingly derives from a line in Aradia, Charles Leland's supposed record of Italian witchcraft.[59] Other traditions wear robes with cords tied around the waist or even normal street clothes. In certain traditions, ritualised sex magic is performed in the form of the Great Rite, whereby a High Priest and High Priestess invoke the God and Goddess to possess them before performing sexual intercourse to raise magical energy for use in spellwork. In some cases it is instead performed "in token", thereby merely symbolically, using the athame to symbolise the penis and the chalice to symbolise the vagina.[60]
[edit]Wheel of the Year


A painted Wheel of the Year at the Museum of Witchcraft, Boscastle, Cornwall, England, displaying all eight of the Sabbats.
Main article: Wheel of the Year
Wiccans celebrate several seasonal festivals of the year, which are known as Sabbats; collectively these occasions are often termed the Wheel of the Year.[61] Many Wiccans, such as Gardnerians and most eclectics celebrate a set of eight of these Sabbats, though in other groups, particularly those that describe themselves as following "Traditional Witchcraft", such as the Clan of Tubal Cain, only four are followed, and in the rare case of the Ros an Bucca group from Cornwall, only six are adhered to.[62] The four Sabbats that are common to all these groups are the cross-quarter days, and these are sometimes referred to as Greater Sabbats. They originated as festivals celebrated by the ancient Celtic peoples of Ireland, and possibly other Celtic peoples of western Europe as well.[63] In the Egyptologist Margaret Murray's The Witch-Cult in Western Europe (1921) and The God of the Witches (1933), in which she dealt with what she believed to be a historical Witch-Cult, she stated that these four festivals had survived Christianisation and had been celebrated in the pagan Witchcraft religion. Subsequently, when Wicca was first developing in the 1930s through to the 1960s, many of the early groups, such as Robert Cochrane's Clan of Tubal Cain and Gerald Gardner's Bricket Wood coven adopted the commemoration of these four Sabbats as described by Murray. Gardner himself made use of the English names of these holidays, stating that "the four great Sabbats are Candlemass [sic], May Eve, Lammas, and Halloween; the equinoxes and solstices are celebrated also."[64]
The other four festivals commemorated by many Wiccans are known as Lesser Sabbats, and comprise of the solstices and the equinoxes, and were only adopted in 1958 by members of the Bricket Wood coven,[65] before subsequently being adopted by other followers of the Gardnerian tradition, and eventually other traditions like Alexandrian Wicca and the Dianic tradition. The names of these holidays that are commonly used today are often taken from Germanic pagan and Celtic polytheistic holidays. However, the festivals are not reconstructive in nature nor do they often resemble their historical counterparts, instead exhibiting a form of universalism. Ritual observations may display cultural influence from the holidays from which they take their name as well as influence from other unrelated cultures.[66]
Sabbat Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere Historical Origins Associations
Samhain, aka Halloween 31 October 30 April, or 1 May Celtic paganism (see also Celts) Death and the ancestors.
Yuletide 21st or 22 December 21 June Germanic paganism Winter Solstice and the rebirth of the sun.
Imbolc, aka Candlemas 1st or 2 February 1 August Celtic paganism (see also Celts) First signs of spring.
Ostara 21st or 22 March 21st or 22 September Germanic paganism Spring Equinox and the beginning of spring.
Beltaine aka May Eve, or May Day 30 April or 1 May 1 November Celtic paganism (see also Celts) The full flowering of spring. Fairy folk.[67]
Litha 21st or 22 June 21 December Possibly Neolithic Summer Solstice.
Lughnasadh aka Lammas 1st or 2 August 1 February Celtic paganism (see also Celts) The harvest of grain.
Mabon aka Modron[68] 21st or 22 September 21 March No historical pagan equivalent. Autumn Equinox. The harvest of fruit.
[edit]Rites of passage


Bust of Diana wearing a moon crown
Various rites of passage can be found within Wicca. Perhaps the most significant of these is an initiation ritual, through which somebody joins the Craft and becomes a Wiccan. In British Traditional Wiccan (BTW) traditions, there is a line of initiatory descent that goes back to Gerald Gardner, and from him is said to go back to the New Forest coven; however, the existence of this coven remains unproven.[69] Gardner himself claimed that there was a traditional length of "a year and a day" between when a person began studying the Craft and when they were initiated, although he frequently broke this rule with initiates. In BTW, initiation only accepts someone into the first degree. To proceed to the second degree, an initiate has to go through another ceremony, in which they name and describe the uses of the ritual tools and implements.[70] It is also at this ceremony that they are given their craft name.[70] By holding the rank of second degree, a BTW is considered capable of initiating others into the Craft, or founding their own semi-autonomous covens.[70] The third degree is the highest in BTW, and it involves the participation of the Great Rite, either actual or symbolically, as well as ritual flagellation.[71] By holding this rank, an initiate is considered capable of forming covens that are entirely autonomous of their parent coven.[71]
According to new-age religious scholar James R. Lewis, in his book Witchcraft today: an encyclopedia of Wiccan and neopagan traditions, a high priestess becomes a queen when she has successfully hived off her first new coven under a new third-degree high priestess (in the orthodox Gardnerian system). She then becomes elgible to wear the "moon crown". The sequence of high priestess and queens traced back to Gerald Gardner is known as a lineage, and every orthodox Gardnerian High Priestess has a set of "lineage papers" proving the authenticity of her status.[72]


A handfasting ceremony at Avebury in England, which occurred during Beltane in 2005
This three-tier degree system following initiation is largely unique to BTW, and traditions heavily based upon it. The Cochranian tradition, which is not BTW, but based upon the teachings of Robert Cochrane, does not have the three degrees of initiation, merely having the stages of novice and initiate.
Some solitary Wiccans also perform self-initiation rituals, to dedicate themselves to becoming a Wiccan. The first of these to be published was in Paul Huson's Mastering Witchcraft (1970), and unusually involved recitation of the Lord's Prayer backwards as a symbol of defiance against the historical Witch Hunt.[73] Subsequent, more overtly pagan self-initiation rituals have since been published in books designed for solitary Wiccans by authors like Doreen Valiente, Scott Cunningham and Silver RavenWolf.
Handfasting is another celebration held by Wiccans, and is the commonly used term for their weddings. Some Wiccans observe the practice of a trial marriage for a year and a day, which some traditions hold should be contracted on the Sabbat of Lughnasadh, as this was the traditional time for trial, "Telltown marriages" among the Irish. A common marriage vow in Wicca is "for as long as love lasts" instead of the traditional Christian "till death do us part".[74] The first ever known Wiccan wedding ceremony took part in 1960 amongst the Bricket Wood coven, between Frederic Lamond and his first wife, Gillian.[75]
Infants in Wiccan families may be involved in a ritual called a Wiccaning, which is analogous to a Christening. The purpose of this is to present the infant to the God and Goddess for protection. Despite this, in accordance with the importance put on free will in Wicca, the child is not necessarily expected or required to adhere to Wicca or other forms of paganism should they not wish to do so when they get older.[citation needed]
[edit]Book of Shadows
Main article: Book of Shadows
In Wicca, there is no set sacred text such as the Christian Bible, Jewish Tanakh or Islamic Qur'an, although there are certain scriptures and texts that various traditions hold to be important and influence their beliefs and practices. Gerald Gardner used a book containing many different texts in his covens, known as the Book of Shadows, which he would frequently add to and adapt. In his Book of Shadows, there are texts taken from various sources, including Charles Godfrey Leland's Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches (1899) and the works of 19th-20th century occultist Aleister Crowley, whom Gardner knew personally. Also in the Book are examples of poetry largely composed by Gardner and his High Priestess Doreen Valiente, the most notable of which is the Charge of the Goddess.
"The Book of Shadows is not a Bible or Quran. It is a personal cookbook of spells that have worked for the owner. I am giving you mine to copy to get you started: as you gain experience discard those spells that don’t work for you and substitute those that you have thought of yourselves."
Gerald Gardner to his followers.[76]
Similar in use to the grimoires of ceremonial magicians,[77] the Book contained instructions for how to perform rituals and spells, as well as religious poetry and chants like Eko Eko Azarak to use in those rituals. Gardner's original intention was that every copy of the Book would be different, because a student would copy from their initiators, but changing things which they felt to be personally ineffective, however amongst many Gardnerian Witches today, particularly in the United States, all copies of the Book are kept identical to the version that the High Priestess Monique Wilson copied from Gardner, with nothing being altered. The Book of Shadows was originally meant to be kept a secret from non-initiates into BTW, but parts of the Book have been published by authors including Charles Cardell, Lady Sheba, Janet Farrar and Stewart Farrar.[78][79]
Today, adherents of many non-BTW traditions have also adopted the concept of the Book of Shadows, with many solitaries also keeping their own versions, sometimes including material taken from the published Gardnerian Book of Shadows. In other traditions however, practices are never written down, meaning that there is no need for a Book of Shadows.
In certain Traditional Witchcraft traditions, different forms of literature are used, for instance in the 1734 tradition, the published articles of Robert Cochrane along with letters he wrote to Joseph Wilson, Robert Graves[80] and others are held in high esteem[81] whilst in the Sabbatic tradition, various grimoires are followed, such as the Azoetia of Andrew Chumbley.
[edit]Symbols


Triple Goddess symbol of waxing, full and waning moon
Various different symbols are used by Wiccans, similar to the use of the crucifix by Christians or the Star of David by Jews. The most notable of these is the pentagram, which has five points, each representing one of the five classical elements in Wicca (earth, air, fire, water and spirit) and also the idea that the human, with its five appendages, is a microcosm of the universe. Other symbols that are used include the triskelion, the triquetra, the Three hares and the triple Moon symbol of the Triple Goddess.
[edit]Traditions

See also: List of Wiccan organisations and Category:Wiccan traditions
In the 1950s through to the 1970s, when the Wiccan movement was largely confined to lineaged groups such as Gardnerian Wicca, a "tradition" usually implied the transfer of a lineage by initiation. However, with the rise of more and more such groups, often being founded by those with no previous initiatory lineage, the term came to be a synonym for a religious denomination within Wicca. There are many such traditions[82][83] and there are also many solitary practitioners who do not align themselves with any particular lineage, working alone. There are also covens that have formed but who do not follow any particular tradition, instead choosing their influences and practices eclectically.
Those traditions which trace a line of initiatory descent back to Gerald Gardner include Gardnerian Wicca, Alexandrian Wicca and the Algard tradition; because of their joint history, they are often referred to as British Traditional Wicca, particularly in North America. Other traditions trace their origins to different figures, even if their beliefs and practices have been influenced to a greater or lesser extent by Gardner. These include Cochrane's Craft and the 1734 tradition, both of which trace their origins to Robert Cochrane; Feri, which traces itself back to Victor Anderson and Gwydion Pendderwen; and Dianic Wicca, whose followers often trace their influences back to Zsuzsanna Budapest. Some of these groups prefer to refer to themselves as Witches, thereby distinguishing themselves from the BTW traditions, who more typically use the term Wiccan (see Etymology section).
British Traditional Wiccans in particular, but also other groups, insist that to become a bona fide member of that tradition, a person has to undergo an actual physical initiation ceremony performed by a pre-existing initiate. In this manner, all BTW's can trace a direct line of descent all the way back to Gardner. Other traditions however do not hold this to be necessary, for instance anyone following a Goddess-centred form of the Craft which emphasises feminism could be considered to be Dianic.
[edit]Covens
Lineaged Wicca is organised into covens of initiated priests and priestesses. Covens are autonomous, and are generally headed by a High Priest and a High Priestess working in partnership, being a couple who have each been through their first, second and third degrees of initiation. Occasionally the leaders of a coven are only second-degree initiates, in which case they come under the rule of the parent coven. Initiation and training of new priesthood is most often performed within a coven environment, but this is not a necessity, and a few initiated Wiccans are unaffiliated with any coven.[31]
A commonly quoted Wiccan tradition holds that the ideal number of members for a coven is thirteen, though this is not held as a hard-and-fast rule.[31] Indeed, many U.S. covens are far smaller, though the membership may be augmented by unaffiliated Wiccans at "open" rituals. When covens grow beyond their ideal number of members, they often split (or "hive") into multiple covens, yet remain connected as a group. A grouping of multiple covens is known as a grove in many traditions.[citation needed]
Initiation into a coven is traditionally preceded by a waiting period of at least a year and a day. A course of study may be set during this period. In some covens a "dedication" ceremony may be performed during this period, some time before the initiation proper, allowing the person to attend certain rituals on a probationary basis. Some solitary Wiccans also choose to study for a year and a day before their self-dedication to the religion.
[edit]Eclectic Wicca
While the origins of modern Wiccan practice lie in coven activity and the careful handing on of practices to a small number of initiates, since the 1970s a widening public appetite made this unsustainable. From about that time larger, more informal, often publicly advertised camps and workshops began to take place and it has been argued [84] that this more informal but more accessible method of passing on the tradition is responsible for the rise of eclectic Wicca. Eclectic Wiccans are more often than not solitary practitioners. Some of these solitaries do, however, attend gatherings and other community events, but reserve their spiritual practices (Sabbats, Esbats, spell-casting, worship, magical work, etc.) for when they are alone. Eclectic Wicca is the most popular variety of Wicca in America[85] and eclectic Wiccans now significantly outnumber lineaged Wiccans; their beliefs and practices tend to be much more varied.[86]
Eclectic Wiccans do not following a single tradition exclusively, each creates their own syncretic spiritual path by adopting, reclaiming, and reinventing the beliefs and rituals of a variety of religious traditions connected to Wicca, paganism or neo-Paganism. An eclectic can be described as free of tradition, even while eclecticism is described as a tradition of Wicca. An eclectic might also be a follower of a particular religious or philosophical path, and yet develop individual ideas and ritual practices based on diverse sources. An eclectic approach to Wicca may draw from a diverse range of ancient and modern beliefs or practices, for example: ancient Egyptian, Greek, Asian, Hebrew, Saxon, Anglo-Saxon, Polynesian or Celtic.[87] Eclectic Wicca is a positive, peaceful, earth-centred religion, with a core ideology informed by those values and beliefs which are common to many Wiccan, pagan, polytheistic,[88] shamanic, Hawaiian,[89] or Polynesian religious traditions. Eclecticism may also reflect theories derived from psychology and philosophy, for example, self-actualization, Jungian archetypes[90] and karma.
[edit]History

Main article: History of Wicca
[edit]Origins and early development, 1921–1959
In the 1920s and 30s, the Egyptologist Dr Margaret Murray published several books detailing her theories that those persecuted as witches during the Early Modern period in Europe were not, as the persecutors had claimed, followers of Satanism, but adherents of a surviving pre-Christian pagan religion - the Witch-Cult. Despite now being discredited by further historical research, her theories were widely accepted and supported at the time.
It was during the 1930s that the first evidence appears for the practice of a pagan Witchcraft religion[91] (what would be recognisable now as Wicca) in England. It seems that several groups around the country, in such places as Norfolk,[92] Cheshire[93] and the New Forest had set themselves up as continuing in the tradition of Murray's Witch-Cult, albeit with influences coming from disparate sources such as ceremonial magic, folk magic, Freemasonry, Theosophy, Romanticism, Druidry, classical mythology and Asian religions.
The Witchcraft religion became more prominent beginning in 1951, with the repeal of the Witchcraft Act of 1735, after which several figures, such as Charles Cardell, Cecil Williamson and most notably Gerald Gardner, began propagating their own versions of the Craft. Gardner claimed to have been initiated into the New Forest coven in 1939, before forming his own tradition, later termed Gardnerianism, which he spread through the formation of groups like the Bricket Wood coven. His tradition, aided by the help of his High Priestess Doreen Valiente and the publication of his books Witchcraft Today (1954) and The Meaning of Witchcraft (1959), soon became the dominant form in the country, and spread to other parts of the British Isles.
[edit]Adaptation and spread, 1960–present
Following Gardner's death in 1964, the Craft continued to grow unabated despite sensationalism and negative portrayals in British tabloids, with new traditions being propagated by figures like Robert Cochrane, Sybil Leek and most importantly Alex Sanders, whose Alexandrian Wicca, which was predominantly based upon Gardnerian Wicca, albeit with an emphasis placed on ceremonial magic, spread quickly and gained much media attention. Around this time, the term "Wicca" began to be commonly adopted over "Witchcraft" and the faith was exported to countries like Australia and the United States.
It was in the United States and in Australia that new, home-grown traditions, sometimes based upon earlier, regional folk-magical traditions and often mixed with the basic structure of Gardnerian Wicca, began to develop, including Victor Anderson's Feri, Joseph Wilson's 1734 tradition, Aidan Kelly's New Reformed Orthodox Order of the Golden Dawn and eventually Zsuzsanna Budapest's Dianic Wicca, each of which emphasised different aspects of the faith.[94] It was also around this time that books teaching people how to become Witches themselves without formal initiation or training began to emerge, among them Paul Huson's Mastering Witchcraft (1970) and Lady Sheba's Book of Shadows (1971). Similar books continued to be published throughout the 1980s and 1990s, fuelled by the writing of such authors as Doreen Valiente, Janet Farrar, Stewart Farrar and Scott Cunningham, who popularised the idea of self-initiation into the Craft.
In the 1990s, amid ever-rising numbers of self-initiates, the popular media began to explore "witchcraft" in fictional films like The Craft and television series like Charmed, introducing numbers of young people to the idea of religious witchcraft. This growing demographic was soon catered to through the Internet and by authors like Silver Ravenwolf, much to the criticism of traditional Wiccan groups and individuals. In response to the way that Wicca was increasingly portrayed as trendy, eclectic, and influenced by the New Age movement, many Witches turned to the pre-Gardnerian origins of the Craft, and to the traditions of his rivals like Cardell and Cochrane, describing themselves as following "Traditional Witchcraft". Prominent groups within this Traditional Witchcraft revival included Andrew Chumbley's Cultus Sabbati and the Cornish Ros an Bucca coven.
[edit]Etymology
Main article: Wicca (etymology)
The term "Wicca" first achieved widespread acceptance when referring to the religion in the 1960s and 70s. Prior to that, the term "Witchcraft" had been more widely used. Whilst being based upon the Old English word wicca, which referred solely to male sorcerers, the actual individual who coined the capitalised term "Wicca" is unknown, though it has been speculated that it was Charles Cardell, who certainly used the term "Wiccen" during the 1950s.
[edit]Demographics
The actual number of Wiccans worldwide is unknown, and it has been noted that it is more difficult to establish the numbers of members of Neopagan faiths than many other religions due to their disorganised structure.[95] However, Adherents.com, an independent website which specialises in collecting estimates of world religions, cites over thirty sources with estimates of numbers of Wiccans (principally from the USA and UK). From this, they developed a median estimate of 800,000 members.[96] In the United States population alone, there have been many attempts at finding a figure, with the 2001 American Religious Identification Survey estimating that at least 134,000 adults identified themselves as Wiccans, compared to 8,000 in 1990.[97] Wiccans have also made up significant proportions of various groups within that country; for instance, Wicca is the largest non-Christian faith practised in the United States Air Force, with 1,434 airmen identifying themselves as such.[98]
"[The average Wiccan is] a man in his forties, or a woman in her thirties, Caucasian, reasonably well educated, not earning much but probably not too concerned about material things, someone that demographers would call lower middle class."
Leo Ruickbie (2004)[99]
In the United Kingdom, census figures do not allow an accurate breakdown of traditions within the Pagan heading, as a campaign by the Pagan Federation before the 2001 Census encouraged Wiccans, Heathens, Druids and others all to use the same write-in term 'Pagan' in order to maximise the numbers reported. For the first time, respondents were able to write in an affiliation not covered by the checklist of common religions, and a total of 42,262 people from England, Scotland and Wales declared themselves to be Pagans by this method. These figures were not immediately analysed by the Office of National Statistics, but were released after an application by the Pagan Federation of Scotland.[100]
[edit]Acceptance of Wiccans

Main article: Religious discrimination against Neopagans


The use of the inverted pentagram by the Church of Satan has contributed to the misidentification of Wiccans as Satanists.
Wicca emerged in a predominantly Christian country, and from its inception suffered opposition from certain Christian groups and from the popular tabloids like the News of the World. Some Christians still believe that Wicca is a form of Satanism, despite important differences between these religions,[101] such as the lack of a Satan-like figure in Wiccan theology. Due to negative connotations associated with witchcraft, many Wiccans continue the traditional practice of secrecy, concealing their faith for fear of persecution. Revealing oneself as Wiccan to family, friends or colleagues is often termed "coming out of the broom-closet".[102] In a similar way, some people have accused Wicca of being anti-Christian, a claim disputed by Wiccans such as Doreen Valiente, who stated that whilst she knew many Wiccans who admired Jesus, "witches have little respect for the doctrines of the churches, which they regard as a lot of man-made dogma".[103]
In the United States, a number of legal decisions have improved and validated the status of Wiccans, especially Dettmer v. Landon in 1985. However, Wiccans have encountered hostility from some politicians and Christian organisations,[104][105][106] including former president of the United States George W. Bush, who stated that he did not believe Wicca to be a religion.[107]
[edit]Debates over the origin of Wicca

According to the history of Wicca given by Gerald Gardner, Wicca is the survival of a theoretical European witch-cult that was persecuted during the witch trials. Theories of an organised pan-European witch-cult, as well as mass trials thereof, have been largely discredited, but it is still common for Wiccans to claim solidarity with witch trial victims.[108]
The notion of the survival of Wiccan traditions and rituals from ancient sources is contested by most recent researchers, who suggest that Wicca is a 20th century creation which combines elements of freemasonry and 19th century occultism.[109] However, historians such as Ronald Hutton have noted that Wicca not only predates the modern New Age movement but also differs markedly in its general philosophy.[110]
In his 1999 book The Triumph of the Moon, Ronald Hutton researched the Wiccan claim that ancient pagan customs have survived into modern times after being Christianised in medieval times as folk practices. Hutton found that most of the folk customs which are claimed to have pagan roots (such as the Maypole dance) actually date from the Middle Ages. He concluded that the idea that medieval revels were pagan in origin is a legacy of the Protestant Reformation.[110][111]
Modern scholarly investigations have concluded that Witch trials were substantially fewer than claimed by Gardner, and seldom at the behest of religious authorities. For example, in the book Witches and Neighbors, Robin Briggs (1996) examines the history of witchcraft in medieval Europe and refutes the widely-told story that large numbers of independent women were burned at the stake by vindictive Christian ecclesiastics for the crime of practicing naturalistic healing or neopagan religion. Most scholars estimate that a total of 40,000 people were executed as witches during the entire medieval period, and that church authorities participated reluctantly in this process, which was largely fueled by the political turmoil of the Reformation.[112][113]
[edit]References and footnotes

^ Hutton, Ronald (1999). The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. p. vii. ISBN 0-19-820744-1.
^ Gardner, Gerald B (1999) [1954]. Witchcraft Today. Lake Toxaway, NC: Mercury Publishing. ISBN 0-8065-2593-2. OCLC 44936549.
^ Seims, Melissa (2008). "Wica or Wicca? - Politics and the Power of Words". The Cauldron (129).
^ White, Ethan Doyle (2010). "The meaning of "Wicca": A study in etymology, history and pagan politics". The Pomegranate (2). ISSN 1528-0268.
^ Adler, Margot (1979). Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-worshippers and Other Pagans in America Today. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-3237-9.
^ a b c d Gallagher, Ann-Marie (2005). The Wicca Bible: the Definitive Guide to Magic and the Craft. New York: Sterling Publishing. ISBN 1-4027-3008-X.
^ Farrar, Janet and Farrar, Stewart. (1987). The Witches' Goddess: The Feminine Principle of Divinity. London: Robert Hale. Page 2-3.
^ Farrar, Janet; Farrar, Stewart (1987). The Witches' Goddess: The Feminine Principle of Divinity. London: Robert Hale. p. 59. ISBN 0-7090-2800-8.
^ Pearson, Joanne; Roberts, Richard H; Samuel, Geoffrey (December 1998). Nature Religion Today: Paganism in the Modern World. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 6. ISBN 0-7486-1057-X. OCLC 39533917.
^ Ravenwolf, Silver (1998). Teen Witch: Wicca for a New Generation. St Paul, Minnesota: Llewellyn. p. 25. ISBN 1-56718-725-0.
^ Gardner, Gerald (1959). The Meaning of Witchcraft. Aquarian. p. 260. ISBN 0-939708-02-7.
^ Farrar, Janet; Farrar, Stewart (1989). The Witches' God: Lord of the Dance. London: Robert Hale. pp. 32–34. ISBN 0-7090-3319-2.
^ a b Farrar, Janet; Farrar, Stewart (1989). The Witches' God: Lord of the Dance. London: Robert Hale. pp. 35–38. ISBN 0-7090-3319-2.
^ Farrar, Janet; Farrar, Stewart (1989). The Witches' God: Lord of the Dance. London: Robert Hale. pp. 15–17. ISBN 0-7090-3319-2.
^ Farrar, Janet and Farrar, Stewart. (1987). The Witches' Goddess: The Feminine Principle of Divinity. London: Robert Hale. Page 29-37.
^ Farrar, Janet and Farrar, Stewart. (1987). The Witches' Goddess: The Feminine Principle of Divinity. London: Robert Hale. Page 38-44.
^ Farrar, Janet; Farrar, Stewart (1989). The Witches' God: Lord of the Dance. London: Robert Hale. pp. 7–10. ISBN 0-7090-3319-2.
^ Farrar, Janet; and Stewart Farrar (1981). A Witches' Bible: The Complete Witches Handbook. London: Phoenix Publishing. pp. 181–182. ISBN 0-919345-92-1. OCLC 62866821.
^ Gardner, Gerald (1988) [1959]. The Meaning of Witchcraft. Lakemont, GA US: Copple House Books. pp. 26–€“27. ISBN 0-939708-02-7.
^ Gardner, Gerald B (1988) [1959]. The Meaning of Witchcraft. Lakemont, GA: Copple House Books. pp. 260–261. ISBN 0-939708-02-7.
^ Hutton, Ronald (1991). The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles. Blackwell. pp. 260–261. ISBN 0-631-17288-2.
^ Gardner, Gerald B (1988) [1959]. The Meaning of Witchcraft. Lakemont, GA: Copple House Books. pp. 26–27. ISBN 0-939708-02-7.
^ Crowther, Patricia (1974). Witch Blood! The Diary of a Witch High Priestess!. New York City: House of Collectibles. ISBN 0-87637-161-6. OCLC 1009193.
^ Cunningham, Scott. Wicca: A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner. ISBN 0-87542-184-9.
^ Charge of the Star Goddess--Starhawk
^ Charge of the Star Goddess--"Book of the Goddess" (Co-edited by Julie Ann Rhoads and Ann Forfreedom in 1979-80):
^ Farrar, Janet; and Gavin Bone (January 2004). Progressive Witchcraft: Spirituality, Mysteries, and Training in Modern Wicca. Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Age Books. ISBN 1-56414-719-3. OCLC 53223741.
^ Adler, Margot (1979). Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-worshippers and Other Pagans in America Today. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 25, 34–35. ISBN 0-8070-3237-9. OCLC 6918454.
^ Crowley, Vivianne. Wicca: The Old Religion in the New Millennium. pp. 129. ISBN 0-7225-3271-7.
^ The Wicca Bible by Anne-Marie Gallagher, Godsfield, page 34-39
^ a b c Buckland, Raymond (1986). Buckland's Complete Book of Witchcraft. Saint Paul: Llewellyn. pp. 17, 18, 53. ISBN 0-87542-050-8. OCLC 14167961.
^ Valiente, Doreen (1973). An ABC of Witchcraft Past and Present. Hale. pp. Introduction. ISBN 0-919345-77-8.
^ a b c d e Hutton, Ronald (1999). Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Withcraft. Oxford University Press. Page 392
^ Farrar, Stewart. What Witches Do. pp. 88. ISBN 0-919345-17-4.
^ Hutton, Ronald (1999). Triumph of the Moon. pp. 392. ISBN 0-9555237-5-3.
^ a b c Valiente, Doreen (1973). An ABC of Witchcraft Past and Present. Hale. pp. 231. ISBN 0-919345-77-8.
^ a b Adler, Margot (2006). Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-worshippers and Other Pagans in America Today. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-019536-X. Page 158-159
^ Huson, Paul (1970). Mastering Witchcraft. Page 27. Putnam.
^ Gallagher, Ann-Marie (2005). The Wicca Bible. Godsfield. pp. 250 to 265. ISBN 1-4027-3008-X.
^ Gallagher, Ann-Marie (2005). The Wicca Bible. Godsfield. pp. 321. ISBN 1-4027-3008-X.
^ Mathiesin, Robert; Theitic (2005). The Rede of the Wiccae. Providence, Rhode Island: Olympian Press. Page 60-61,
^ Harrow, Judy (Oimelc 1985). "Exegesis on the Rede". Harvest 5 (3). Archived from the original on 2007-07-28.
^ Lembke, Karl (2002) The Threefold Law.
^ Adams, Luthaneal (2011). The Book of Mirrors. UK: Capall Bann. pp. 218. ISBN 1-86163-325-4.
^ Farrar, Janet; and Stewart Farrar (May 1992) [1981]. Eight Sabbats for Witches. London: Robert Hale Publishing. ISBN 0-7090-4778-9. OCLC 26673966.
^ Valiente, Doreen (1989). The Rebirth of Witchcraft. London: Robert Hale Publishing. pp. 70–71. ISBN 0-7090-3715-5. OCLC 59694320.
^ Hutton, Ronald (2005-05-24) [1999]. The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-820744-1. OCLC 41452625.
^ Gardner, Gerald B (1954). Witchcraft Today. London: Rider and Company. pp. 69, 75. ISBN 0-8065-2593-2. OCLC 1059746.
^ Adler, Margot (2006 [1986]). Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-worshippers and Other Pagans in America Today. Penguin. pp. 130–131. ISBN 0-14-019536-X.
^ Zell-Ravenheart, Oberon; Zell-Ravenheart, Morning Glory (2006). Creating Circles & Ceremonies. Franklin Lakes: New Page Books. p. 42. ISBN 1-56414-864-5.
^ Lamond, Frederic R (2004). Fifty Years of Wicca. United Kingdom: Green Magic. pp. 88–89. ISBN 0-9547230-1-5.
^ Valiente, Doreen (1989). The Rebirth of Witchcraft. London: Hale. Page 124.
^ Valiente, Doreen (1988) [1973]. An ABC of Witchcraft Past and Present. Custer: Phoenix Publishing. pp. 264. ISBN 0-919345-77-8.
^ Adler, Margot (2005 [1979]). Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-worshippers and Other Pagans in America. Penguin. pp. 164. ISBN 0-14-019536-X.
^ Adler, Margot (2005 [1979]). Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-worshippers and Other Pagans in America. Penguin. pp. 172. ISBN 0-14-019536-X.
^ Adler, Margot (2005 [1979]). Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-worshippers and Other Pagans in America. Penguin. pp. 173. ISBN 0-14-019536-X.
^ Adler, Margot (2005 [1979]). Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-worshippers and Other Pagans in America. Penguin. pp. 174. ISBN 0-14-019536-X.
^ Crowley, Vivianne. Wicca: The Old Religion in the New Age (1989) London: The Aquarian Press. ISBN 0-85030-737-6
^ Leland, Charles (1899). Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches. David Nutt. Page 7.
^ Farrar, Janet; Farrar, Stewart (1984). The Witches' Way: Principles, Rituals and Beliefs of Modern Witchcraft. Phoenix Publishing. pp. 156–174. ISBN 0-919345-71-9.
^ Farrar, Janet and Farrar, Stewart. Eight Sabbats for Witches (1981) (published as Part 1 of A Witches' Bible, 1996) Custer, Washington, USA: Phoenix Publishing Inc. ISBN 0-919345-92-1
^ Gary, Gemma (2008). Traditional Witchcraft: A Cornish Book of Ways. Troy Books. Page 147.
^ Evans, Emrys (1992). Mythology. Little Brown & Company. ISBN 0-316-84763-1. Page 170.
^ Gardner, Gerald B (2004) [1959]. The Meaning of Witchcraft. Red Wheel. p. 10. ISBN 0-939708-02-7.
^ Lamond, Frederic (2004). Fifty Years of Wicca. Sutton Mallet, England: Green Magic. pp. 16–17. ISBN 0-9547230-1-5.
^ Crowley, Vivianne. Wicca: The Old Religion in the New Age (1989) London: The Aquarian Press. ISBN 0-85030-737-6 p.23
^ Gallagher, Anne-Marie. (2005). The Wicca Bible: The Definitive Guide to Magic and the Craft. London: Godsfield Press. Page 67.
^ Gallagher, Anne-Marie. (2005). The Wicca Bible: The Definitive Guide to Magic and the Craft. London: Godsfield Press. Page 72.
^ Simpson, Jacqueline (2005). "Witching Culture: Folklore and Neo-Paganism in America". Folklore 116.
^ a b c Stewart, Farrar. The Witches' Way. ISBN 0-919345-71-9.Chapter II - Second Degree Initiation
^ a b Stewart, Farrar. The Witches' Way. ISBN 0-919345-71-9.Chapter III - Third Degree Initiation
^ [1] Witchcraft today: an encyclopedia of Wiccan and neopagan traditions - Page 238, by James R. Lewis
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^ Gallagher, Anne-Marie. (2005). The Wicca Bible: The Definitive Guide to Magic and the Craft. London: Godsfield Press. Page 370.
^ Hutton, Ronald (1999). The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 325. ISBN 0-19-820744-1.
^ Lamond, Frederic (2004). Fifty Years of Wicca. Page 14. Green Magic.
^ Crowley, Vivianne (1989). Wicca: The Old Religion in the New Age. London: Aquarian Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN 0-85030-737-6.
^ Farrar, Janet; Farrar, Stewart (1996). A Witches' Bible. Custer, Washington: Phoenix Publishing. ISBN 0-919345-92-1.
^ Gardner, Gerald (2004). Naylor, A R (ed.). ed. Witchcraft and the Book of Shadows. Thame, England: I-H-O Books. ISBN 1-872189-52-0.
^ Grevel Lindop, ed. (24 May 2010). "Robert Cochrane’s Letters to Robert Graves". The Cauldron. Retrieved 8 June 2010.
^ Cochrane, Robert; Michael Howard and Evan John Jones (2003). The Robert Cochrane Letters: An Insight into Modern Traditional Witchcraft. UK: Capall Bann Publishing. ISBN 1-86163-221-5.
^ "Beaufort House Index of English Traditional Witchcraft". Beaufort House Association. 1999-01-15. Retrieved 2007-04-02.
^ "Different types of Witchcraft". Hex Archive. Retrieved 2007-04-02.
^ Howard, Michael (2009). Modern Wicca. Woodbury, Minnesota: Llewellyn. Page 299-301
^ Smith, Diane (2005). Wicca and Witchcraft for Dummies. Wiley Publishing. Pg. 125.
^ "British Traditional Wicca F.A.Q.". Sacramento, CA: New Wiccan Church International. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
^ Hutton, Ronald (1993) The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their Nature and Legacy. ISBN 0-631-18946-7
^ Weinstein, Marion (2003) Earth Magic: a book of shadows for positive witches New Page Books ISBN 1-56414-638-3
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^ Cunningham, Scott (1988) - Wicca: A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner (ISBN 0-87542-118-0)
^ Heselton, Philip (November 2001). Wiccan Roots: Gerald Gardner and the Modern Witchcraft Revival. Freshfields, Chieveley, Berkshire: Capall Bann Pub.. ISBN 1-86163-110-3. OCLC 46955899. See also Nevill Drury. "Why Does Aleister Crowley Still Matter?" Richard Metzger, ed. Book of Lies: The Disinformation Guide to Magick and the Occult. Disinformation Books, 2003.
^ Bourne, Lois (1998). Dancing With Witches. Hale. Page 51.
^ Heselton, Philip (2003). Gerald Gardner and the Cauldron of Inspiration. Capall Bann. Page 254.
^ Holzer, Hans (1972). The New Pagans. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. OCLC 281240.
^ Bonewits, Isaac (2005). "How Many “Pagans” Are There?". Neopagan.net. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
^ "Statistical summary pages: W". Adherents.com. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
^ Banerjee, Neela (16 May 2007). "Wiccans Keep the Faith With a Religion Under Wraps". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
^ Holmes, Erik (17 January 2010). "Respect healthy for different faiths". Air Force Times. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
^ Ruickbie, Leo (2004). Witchcraft Out of the Shadows. Hale. p. 177. ISBN 0-7090-7567-7.
^ "Pagans and the Scottish Census of 2001". ScottisPF.org. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
^ Davis, Derek; Hankins, Barry (2003). New Religious Movements and Religious Liberty in America (2nd ed.). Waco: Baylor University Press. pp. 75. ISBN 0-918954-92-4. OCLC 52895492. "Much to the chagrin of practitioners of Wicca, there has been confusion in the minds of many about their religion, which is often linked with Satanism, although there are important differences."
^ 'Bewitched' (2003-12-04). "Witch Way". Slate.com. Retrieved 2008-05-16. "Believe me, coming out of the "broom closet" is a one-way trip."
^ Valiente, Doreen (1973). An ABC of Witchcraft Past and Present. Hale. pp. Introduction. ISBN 0-919345-77-8.
^ "'Satanic' Army Unworthy of Representing United States" (Press release). Free Congress Foundation. 1999-06-09. Retrieved 2007-07-11.
^ Silk, Mark (Summer 1999). "Something Wiccan This Way Comes". Religion in the News 2 (2). ISSN 1525-7207. Archived from the original on 2007-05-24.
^ "Barr's Witch Project: Lawmaker Wants to Ban Witches from the Military". LawStreet Journal. 1999-11-01. Archived from the original on 2000-02-29. Retrieved 2007-07-11.
^ "George W. Bush Justifies Off-The-Cuff Bigotry". Positive Atheism Magazine. 1999-06-01. Retrieved 2008-11-30.
^ Buckland, Raymond (1 September 2002) [1971]. Witchcraft From The Inside: Origins of the Fastest Growing Religious Movement in America (3rd ed.). St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications. ISBN 1-56718-101-5. OCLC 31781774.
^ Allen, Charlotte (January 2001). "The Scholars and the Goddess". The Atlantic Monthly (287). OCLC 202832236.
^ a b Hutton, Ronald (1999). The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-820744-1.
^ Davis, Philip G (1998). Goddess Unmasked. Dallas: Spence. ISBN 0-9653208-9-8.
^ Gibbons, Jenny (August 1998). "Recent Developments in the Study of The Great European Witch Hunt". The Pomegranate (5). ISSN 1528-0268.
^ Briggs, Robin (1998). Witches and Neighbors. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-014438-2.
[edit]Further reading

Significant historical works
Gardner, Gerald (1954). Witchcraft Today. Ryder.
Gardner, Gerald (1959). The Meaning of Witchcraft. Aquarian.
Practices and beliefs
Farrar, Stewart; Farrar, Janet (1981). Eight Sabbats for Witches. R. Hale.
Bado-Fralick, Nikki (2005). Coming to the Edge of the Circle: A Wiccan Initiation Ritual. Oxford University Press.
History of Wicca
Kelly, Aidan A (1991). Crafting the Art of Magic: A History of Modern Witchcraft, 1939-1964. Llewellyn. ISBN 0-87542-370-1.
Hutton, Ronald (1999). The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford University Press.
Heselton, Philip (2000). Wiccan Roots: Gerald Gardner and the Modern Witchcraft Revival. Capall Bann. ISBN 1-86163-110-3.
Heselton, Philip (2001). Gerald Gardner and the Witchcraft Revival: The Significance of His Life and Works to the Story of Modern Witchcraft. I-H-O Books. ISBN 1-872189-16-4.
Heselton, Philip (2003). Gerald Gardner and the Cauldron of Inspiration: An Investigation into the Sources of Gardnerian Witchcraft. Capall Bann. ISBN 1-86163-164-2.
Wicca in different countries
Berger, Helen A (1999). A Community of Witches: Contemporary Neo-Paganism and Witchcraft in the United States. University of South Carolina Press.
Clifton, Chas S (2006). Her Hidden Children: The Rise of Wicca and Paganism in America. AltaMira Press.
Magliocco, Sabina (2004). Witching Culture: Folklore and Neo-Paganism in America. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Hume, Lynne (1997). Witchcraft and Paganism in Australia. Melbourne University Press.
General
Buckland, Raymond (2002). The Witch Book: The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft, Wicca, and Neo-paganism. Visible Ink Press.
Lewis, James R (1999). Witchcraft Today: An Encyclopedia of Wiccan and Neopagan Traditions. ABC-CLIO.
Rabinovitch, Shelly; Lewis, James R, eds. (2002). The Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism. Kensington.
Lewis, James R, ed. (1996). Magical Religion and Modern Witchcraft. State University of New York Press.
Luhrmann, T M (1994). Persuasions of the Witch's Craft: Ritual Magic in Contemporary England. Picador.
[edit]External links

Wicca portal
The Wiktionary entry for Wicca
Media related to Wicca at Wikimedia Commons
Witchvox.org - Neopagan news and networking
Covenant of the Goddess (U.S.)
Pagan Federation (UK), (Canada)
The Pomegranate - The International Journal of Pagan Studies
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Wicca and Pagan Witchcraft
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Contemporary Paganism

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Categories: WiccaNeopagan traditionsWitchcraftPaganism