برای نوگرایی در هنر به مقاله هنر نوگرا و برای دوره جامعه‌شناختی که با انقلاب صنعتی آغاز شد به مقاله مدرنیته مراجعه نمایید.
نوگرایی، که از آن به نام‌های تجدد یا مدرنیسم (modernism) نیز یاد می‌شود، به معنی گرایش فکری و رفتاری به پدیده‌های فرهنگی نو و پیشرفته‌تر و کنار گذاردن برخی از سنت‌های قدیمی است. نوگرایی فرایند گسترش خردگرایی در جامعه و تحقق آن در بستر مدرنیته است. نوگرایی یا مدرنیسم، گستره‌ای از جنبش‌های فرهنگی که ریشه در تغییرات جامعه غربی در اواخر قرن نوزدهم و اوایل قرن بیستم دارد، را توصیف می‌کند. این واژه مجموعه‌ای از جنبش‌های هنری، معماری، موسیقی، ادبیات و هنرهای کاربردی را که در این دوره زمانی رخ داده اند، در بر دارد.[۱]

محتویات [نمایش]
تاریخچه [ویرایش]

نوگرایی، جریانی فکری به معنای استفاده انسان از دانش، فناوری و توان تجربی خود برای تولید، بهبود و تغییر محیط خود است. پیدایش مدرنیسم در غرب را می‌توان واکنشی بر ضد سنت و دین مسیحیت دانست.

مولفه‌های نوگرایی [ویرایش]

انسان‌محوری
انسان محوری به معنای باور به قدرت اندیشه انسان.

ماده‌گرایی
جهان‌بینی مدرن نیازهای روحانی انسان را به نیازهای عاطفی او تحویل می‌کند.

خردگرایی
نگرش به جهان به صورت عقلی و بر اساس خرد و استدلال.

نوگرایی در عرصه‌های مختلف [ویرایش]

نوگرایی در عرصهٔ فلسفه [ویرایش]
اساس فلسفه در دوران نوگرایی، انسان است. حقیقت دیگر الهامی نیست و از آسمان نمی‌آید بلکه اکتسابیست و بر روی زمین و با قوانین زمینی کشف و نه اختراع و از طریق مشاهده و آزمایش و تفکر علمی بدست می‌آید نه از راه ریاضت کشیدن و یا نزدیک شدن به خداوند. نوگرایی منادی خردگرایی است. خردگرایی را نیز در مقابل دین‌خویی تعریف میکنیم. ناسوت و ملکوت و جبروت و لاهوت در فلسفه مدرن جایی ندارند، قلمرو فلسفه متجدد انسان‌گرایی و عرفی گرایی (سکولاریسم) است. در فلسفه متجدد عقل محور است نه جهل، موازین یا باید عقلی باشند یا باید اصولا نابود و نیست یا بسیار خصوصی باشند.

در فلسفه نوگرا نوع تازه‌ای از اندیشه مبتنی بر خرد نقاد جانشین ایمان مطلق می‌شود و در نتیجه عرصه فلسفه به کلی دگرگون می‌شود و دیگر جایی برای اسطوره و خرافه و دین در این عرصه باقی نمیماند.

نوگرایی در عرصه دانش [ویرایش]
با تغییر فلسفه، علم نیز مسلما تغییر خواهد کرد، نوگرایی نخستین دلیل پیشرفت علمی بشریت در تمام دورانها بوده است، تبدیل کیمیاگری به شیمی دقیقا یک محصول از نوگرایی است، پیدایش کلینیک و بیمارستان به جای سقاخانه و استفاده از دکتر بجای دعانویس و ملا از نمادهای تجدد است. ایجاد شرایط سالم‌تر زندگی بجای دست به دعا بردن و درخواست بیمه سلامتی از خدا کردن نشان از تجدد دارد. علت‌ها و معلول‌ها همگی زمینی و منطقی و علمی خواهند بود. در دانش نوگرا هیچ اثری از انشاء الله و ماشاء الله دیده نمی‌شود، مشاهده علمی بر اساس روش علمی انجام می‌شوند و علم نیز همچون سیاست در جامعه مدرن به عرصه عرفی و عمومی وارد می‌شود. در ملکوت علم نیز همچون فلسفه جایگاهی برای اسطوره‌ها و... دیده نمی‌شود. در دوران قبل از نو گرایی علم وجود داشت و علم بسیار کار آمدی بود هیچ وقت مردم به دعا نویسی اکتفا نمی کردند. برای اثبات به آثار شیخ بهایی و ابو علی سینا مراجعه کنید.

نوگرایی در عرصهٔ اقتصاد [ویرایش]
وجه مشترک جوامع فئودالی نوعی تفکر خدامدار، اقتصاد طبیعی و حاکمیت سنت ایستاست. نوگرایی پرچمدار خردمداری، اقتصاد کالایی و جهانگشای سرمایه داری، فروپاشی سنت و پیدایش جامعه مدنی است. اقتصاد هم به عرصه عمومی وارد می‌شود و زن بطور جدی و برابر به عرصه اقتصاد وارد می‌شود، می‌گویند میزان پیشرفت و آزادی را در یک جامعه باید با نگاه کردن به وضعیت زنان آن جامعه دریافت.

نوگرایی در عرصهٔ سیاست [ویرایش]
در جامعه مدرن، مردم شهروند هستند، و به جای مکلف بودن محق هستند یعنی حقوقی دارند که این حقوق باید توسط حاکمان پرداخته شود. مثلا مردم حق دارند که آزادی اندیشه و بیان و پوشش داشته باشند و دولت وظیفه دارد این شرایط را ایجاد بکند. مردم دیگر مطیع امر رهبران نیستند بلکه این رهبرانند که مطیع امر مردم هستند و این بار این حاکمین هستند که باید بر اساس مغز مردم عمل کنند. حکومت در جامعه مدرن یک قرارداد اجتماعی است بین حاکمین و محکومین، مردم اشخاصی را انتخاب می‌کنند که آنها به ارباب خود که همان مردم باشند خدمت کنند نه اینکه حاکمین مردمی را انتخاب کنند که به اربابشان که حاکم است خدمت کنند. مفهوم دین و خدا هم اصولا هیچ کاره هستند و تنها مربوط به حوزه شخصی مردم می‌شوند، نه حوزه سیاست و اجتماع.

نوگرایی در عرصه هنر [ویرایش]


عمارت بارسلون، اثر لودویش میس فن در روهه، از آثار تاریخی و متشخص معماری نوگرا است.
نوشتار اصلی: سبک بین‌المللی
نوشتار اصلی: معماری مدرن


نوگرایی در ایران [ویرایش]

با اینکه جامعه ایران حرکت هایی در راستای تبدیل شدن به یک جامعه مدرن برداشته است، همچنان بسیاری از ارکان جامعه سنتی است و به خاطر محافظه کاری فکری، به قولی در حرکت به سمت یک فرهنگ مدرن دچار استخاره‌ای طولانی مدت شده است. با توجه با اینکه بیش از اینکه فکر نوگرا وارد ایران بشود و نوگرایی فکری لحاظ گردد، محصولات و ساختارهای مدرن از جوامع مدرن وارد ایران شده است و می‌شود، همیشه این خطر وجود دارد که هویت ایرانی در این حرکت به سمت مدرنیته لحاظ نگردد و از نگاهی نقادانه نسبت به فرایند جهانی سازی، در روند تبلور نوگرایی این خطر بسیاری از کشورها را تهدید می‌کند که همه فرهنگ‌ها شبیه هم شوند. وجود تفاوتهای بنیادی بین نژادها و فرهنگ‌ها ایجاب می‌کند که نسخه مدرنیته به گونه‌های متفاوت و به صورت بومی و با لحاظ کردن روحیات فرهنگ بومی برای فرهنگ‌های مختلف پیچیده شود.[۲].

همچنین ببینید [ویرایش]

پسانوگرایی

روشنفکری

منبع [ویرایش]

در ویکی‌انبار پرونده‌هایی دربارهٔ نوگرایی موجود است.
↑ Gates, Henry Louis. The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004.
↑ «و آنچه ما داریم- نگاهی تحلیلی به خصایص مثبت فرهنگ ایرانی و نقش آن در تبلور مدرنیته بومی».
تجدد و تجدد ستیزی در ایران نوشته دکتر عباس میلانی
مدرنیته، جهانی شدن و ایران، نوشته دکتر عطا هودشنیان، انتشارات چاپخش، تهران، 1381
[نمایش]
ن • ب • و
معماری نوگرا
[نمایش]
ن • ب • و
تاریخ معماری
رده‌های صفحه: نوگرایی جنبش‌های هنری سبک‌های معماری هنر نوگرا
قس عربی
تعبر کلمة حداثة (بالإنجلیزیة: Modernity) (عصرنة أو تحدیث) عن أی عملیة تتضمن تحدیث وتجدید ما هو قدیم لذلک تستخدم فی مجالات عدة، لکن هذا المصطلح یبرز فی المجال الثقافی والفکری التاریخی لیدل على مرحلة التطور التی طبعت أوروبا بشکل خاص فی مرحلة العصور الحدیثة. بشکل مبسط، یمکن تقسیم التاریخ إلى خمسة أجزاء: ما قبل التاریخ، التاریخ القدیم، العصور الوسطى، العصر الحدیث والعصر ما بعد الحدیث[بحاجة لمصدر].
معظم الحیاة الحدیثة تغذت من مصادر متعددة: اکتشافات علمیة مذهلة، معلومات عن موقعنا من الفضاء وتصورنا عنه، مکننة الصناعة التی حولت المعرفة بالعلوم إلى تکنولوجیا، وغیرها. کل هذا یخلق بیئات جدیدة للبشر ویدمر القدیمة، فهو یعجل حرکة الحیاة، یبلور أفکارا واتجاهات اجتماعیة وسیاسیة ودینیة، یکون قوى وسلطات جدیدة، یعقّد العلاقات بین الناس وبعضهم وبین الناس والمؤسسات المختلفة، یزید أو یغیر اتجاهات الصراعات الطبقیة ویفصل الملایین من البشر عن تاریخهم وعاداتهم الموروثة منذ الأزل.[1]
محتویات [اعرض]
[عدل]بدایة الحداثة

الحداثة تشمل مجموعة من التغییرات الاقتصادیة والسیاسیة والاجتماعیة بالإضافة إلى أخذ تلک التغییرات على أنها عصریة. الجدل حول الحداثة یتناول هذه التغییرات التی یبدو أنها بدأت فی أوروبا فی أواخر القرن الخامس عشر أوبدایة القرن السادس عشر.
بعض المفکرین یؤرخون بدایة الحداثة عام 1436، مع اختراع غوتنبیرغ للطابعة المتحرکة. البعض الآخر یرى أنها تبدأ فی العام 1520 مع الثورة اللوثریة ضد سلطة الکنیسة. مجموعة أخرى تتقدم بها إلى العام 1648 مع نهایة حرب الثلاثین عام ومجموعة خامسة تربط بینها وبین الثورة الفرنسیة عام 1789أو الثورة الأمریکیة عام 1776وقلة من المفکرین یظنون أنها لم تبدأ حتى عام 1895 مع کتاب فروید "تفسیر الأحلام" وبدأ حرکة الحداثة (modernism) فی الفنون والآداب.[2]
[عدل]التغییرات الأساسیة

بالرغم من أن الحداثة تربط عادة بالتقدم التکنولوجی إلا أن التغییرات الفکریة کانت الأکثر تأثیرا، تشمل التغییرات الفکریة السیاسة والاقتصاد والدین وعلم الاجتماع. والحداث کما عرفها کانط 1784 :"الأنوار خروج الانسان من حالة الوصایة التی تسبب فیها بنفسه والتی تتمثل فی عجزه عن استخدام فکره دون توجیه من غیره.." وکان شعارها هو أقدم على استعمال/ استخدام فکرک؛ "ولکن لإشاعة تلک الأنوار لا یشترط شیء آخر سوى الحریة فی أبراز مظاهرها کاستخدام العقل علانیة من کل زوایاه"
[عدل]علم الاجتماع

بالرغم من أن ابن خلدون هو من وضع أسس علم الاجتماع، إلا أن الحدیث عنه لم یأخذ منحنى مؤثرا فی المجتمعات حتى ظهر المفکرون الحداثیون. فکرة دیکارت عن کوسموبولس مثالیة ألهبت خیال المفکرین فی القرون الثلاثة التالیة[1] وأنجبت العدید من رواد العدالة الاجتماعیة والمدن المثالیة نسجاً على منوال "المدینة الفاضلة" لتوماس مور.
کانت الأفکار تمیل إلى البحث عن العدالة الاجتماعیة ورفض الإقطاع والطبقیة التی کانت سائدة فی أوروبا فی ذلک الوقت وتدعو إلى مجتمع فاضل یحصل فیه الجمیع على حقوق متساویة. أدت هذه المدارس الفکریة إلى ظهور العدید من المدارس السیاسیة والاقتصادیة القائمة علیها مثل الشیوعیة والاشتراکیة والمارکسیة وغیرها، وأدت تلک بدورها إلى تغییر النظم الحاکمة فی أوروبا وحدوث الثورات الاجتماعیة والسیاسیة مثل الثورة الفرنسیة والثورة البلشفیة.
من المفکرین الحداثیین الذین أثروا فی علم الاجتماع فردیناند تونیز وإمیل دورکهیم وماکس ویبر [[

الاقتصاد

بالرغم من المثالیة فی علم الاجتماع وبالرغم من غلبة العدالة الاجتماعیة إلا أن خطین رئیسیین ظهرا فی الاقتصاد الحداثی، الرأسمالیة والتجارة الحرة بقیادة آدم سمیث والمارکسیة والشیوعیة التی دعا إلیها کارل مارکس.
کانا هذین الرائدین أول من نظر للاقتصاد السیاسی.
[3]

إلا أن السخط على رجال الدین والتبرم من سیطرة روما على الدول لم یکن هو التغییر الوحید. فی نهایات العصور الوسطى وبدایة عصر التنویر کانت التفسیرات حول العالم وما فیه تدور فی حیز الدین، الله هو الخالق وهو الذی سوف ینهی الکون، للتاریخ نهایة واضحة...الخ. فی بدایة القرن السابع عشر المیلادی أسس نیوتین قوانین الفیزیاء الحرکیة أو المیکانیا، أوحت هذه القوانین للناس أن العالم یمکن فهمه بدون العودة إلى الدین. کان نیوتین یؤمن بأن الله خالق الکون وأنه هو الذی خلق هذه القوانین إلا أن فهمها أو دراستها یمکن أن تتطور بدون العودة إلى الإنجیل.
فیما بعد، قام آخرون بدراسة مجالات أخرى من الحیاة بمنأى عن الدین: الاقتصاد، السیاسة، الأخلاق وغیرها. کل هذه أعطت إمکانیة إخراج الدین من دائرة الحوار وجعل الحوار، فی رأیهم، عقلانی، منطقی ویمکن التکهن به. الإنسان یمکنه أن یستوعب کیفیة عمل الأشیاء ویمکنه أن یغیرها. هذه الطریقة فی التفکیر فی النهایة أدت إلى تحول مجموعة من المفکرین الرادیکالیین إلى الربوبیة التی ترفض الأدیان المنظمة وتدعو إلى التمسک بالعلم والمنطق. العلمانیة والإلحاد کانتا الخطوات التالیة المتوقعة لهذه الأفکار.
تطور العلم وتعارض العلم مع الدین أدى إلى ظهور طبقة من العلماء رفضوا کافة الأدیان واعتنقوا الإلحاد وبدؤوا الدعوة إلى أنظمة حکم علمانیة لا تسمح للدین بالتدخل فی أمور الحیاة العامة. ظهور نظریة دارون فی النصف الثانی من القرن التاسع عشر عزز هذه الظاهرة وشجع الکثیر على الإلحاد معتمدین على النظریة التی تتعارض مع الفکر الدینی الذی یؤکد أن الناس جمیعا من نسل آدم. ویبقى ان فی الحداثة بعد سوسیونفسی یتمثل فی الرغبة فی الجدید وتکسیر العتید.
[عدل]السیاسة

معظم الفلاسفة السیاسیین یعتبرون میکافیللی وهوبز وبودین، والبعض قد یضیف لوثر أیضا، کمفکرین نظروا للتغیرات فی الواقع السیاسی ومهدوا الطریق للدراسات السیاسیة. أستوعب هؤلاء حقیقة القوى الفاعلة فی إیطالیا، ألمانیا، بریطانیا وفرنسا وفسروا السیاسة بجدلیة فرقت بینها وبین القوى السیاسیة فی العصور الوسطى والعصور القدیمة. بصورة عامة، رؤوا أن السیاسة هی میدان القوة، الأنانیة والسیطرة. ولکنهم أیضا اعترفوا بدور السلطة فی الحفاظ على النظام والأمن. نیکولو میکافیلی فی کتابیه الأمیر والحدیث وفکره الواقعی أثر تأثیرا بالغا على الفکر السیاسی فی الغرب إلى الحد الذی یمکن فیه أن یقال أنه أساس الفکر السیاسی الحدیث. فیما بعد قام توماس هوبز بتطویر وتوسیع أفکار میکافیللی فی فلسفته السیاسیة التی نبع منها الفکر اللیبرالی الغربی الحالی.
فی عصر التنویر ظهرت نظریات سیاسیة جدیدة من أهمها فکرة "العقد الاجتماعی" المبنیة على فکر جان جاک روسو والتی نظر لها أیضا مونتسکیو وجون لوک والتی تفرق بین الدولة والحکومة وتقول بأن على الشعب أن یتنازل عن بعض الحقوق للحکومة فی مقابل الحفاظ على الأمان والنظام، إلا أن هذا التنازل یجب أن یکون بموافقة الشعب فیما أسماه روسو العقد الاجتماعی. هذه النظریة ألهمت الثورة الفرنسیة.
مع انتشار الثورة الصناعیة تزاید التطور العمرانی وظهرت الرأسمالیة بقوة مما غیر المجتمع بشکل ملحوظ. خلال هذه الفترة بدأ الفکر الاشتراکی بالتکون وحازت المارکسیة على دعم الشعوب خصوصا من قبل الطبقة العاملة. من قیادیی هذا الفکر کارل مارکس وفریدرک إنکلز. فی نفس الوقت بدأت حرکات سیاسیة أخرى بالتکون، منها اللاسلطویة والنقابیة والحرکات التی تدعو إلى تعدد الأحزاب وسیطرة الطبقة العاملة على السیاسة والاقتصاد.[4]
[عدل]قیم الجمال فی العصر الحدیث

انتصرت فی العصر الحدیث جمالیات الالة على اساس انها امتداد للید الإنسانبة, وبدا العالم الغربی یقدر القیمة الجمالیة لمنتجات الالة کما ظهرت منذ ذلک الوقت مصطلحات ومبادئ جدیدة فی عالم القیم الجمالیة, ومن أشهر هذه القیم : " الدقة" Precision و"البساطة" simplicity و" الاقتصاد " Economy وازیحت قیم أخرى کانت سائدة قدیما مثل " الندرة " و" الغلو ". لقد قدم عصر التکنولوجیا والإنتاج الاقتصادى مبادئ وقیم الالة، التی أصبحت توجه الذوق، وفی ضوء الاعتقاد فی القیم الجدیدة، ظهرت الاستخدامات المعاصرة فی فن التصویر، مثل تقنیة التلصیق، ومذهب " فن العامة ". لقد ظهرت کذلک اخلاقیات وجمالیات جدیدة انسجمت مع عصر الالة، تلک الالة التی وفرت کثیرا من العناء الذی ارتبط بالحیاة، فی اعتمادها على الجهد الإنسانى.(4)
[عدل]المصادر

↑ أ ب مارشال بیرمان 1981: "کل ما هو صلد یذوب فی الهواء: اختبار الحداثة". Berman, Marshall 1981; All That is Solid melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity.
^ ستیفن تولمن 1992: "کوسموبولس: الأجندة المخفیة للحداثة"، مطبعة جامعة شیکاغو: شیکاغو. Toulmin, Stephen 1992; Cosmopolis: The Hidden Agenda of Modernity, University of Chicago Press : Chicago.
^ tephen 1992; Cosmopolis: The Hidden Agenda of Modernity, University of Chicago Press : Chicago.
^ جین بورتر، 2002، "الحداثة: طبیعتها وأسباب نموها". Porter, Jene M., (2002), Modernity: Its Nature and The Causes Of Its Growth. http://www.artsci.lsu.edu/voegelin/EVS/Jene%20Porter.htm
4 - محسن عطیه2010 : "القیم الجمالیة فی الفنون التشکیلیة " دار الفکر العربى.
[عدل]مراجع أخرى

دونالد جینیل، 1969 "إعادة التنظیم الفضائی: مودیل وفکرة". Janelle, Donald 1969: ‘Spatial reorganization: a model and concept' Annals Assoc. Amer. Geog.
أنتونی جیدنز، 1990، "تبعات الحداثة". Giddens, Anthony 1990: The Consequences of Modernity
سعد الحاج بن جخدل، 2011، "البعد السوسیونفسی للحداثة" مجلة ادیبات لبنان، مطبعة الفلق،بیروت.
دایفد هارفی، 1989، "حالة ما بعد الحداثة". Harvey, David 1989: The Condition of Postmodernity (1989)
حداثویة
القرن العشرون - حداثة - وجودیة
حداثویة (موسیقا): الموسیقى الکلاسیکیة للقرن العشرین - Atonality - جاز
أدب حداثی - شعر حداثی
فن حدیث - تجریدیة (فنون) - انطباعیة - تعبیریة - تکعیبیة - سریالیة
رقص حدیث - رقص تعبیری
عمارة حدیثة
...سبقت ب رومانسیة تبعتها ما بعد الحداثویة...
تصنیفات: حداثةحرکات فنیةطرز معماریةفن حدیثعلم الجمالنظریات فلسفیة
قس ترکی آذری
Kültürel bağlamda modernizm, 19. yüzyılda geleneksel anlamdaki edebi, sanatsal, sosyal organizasyon ve gündelik yaşamın geçerliliğini yitirdiği fikriyle ortaya çıkmıştır.
Modernist hareketin 19. yüzyıl ortasında Fransa'da ortaya çıktığı kabul edilir. Modernizm kabaca 1884-1914 yılları arasında hüküm sürmüştür. Temelde dayandığı fikir, geleneksel sanatlar, edebiyat, toplumsal kuruluşlar ve günlük yaşamın artık zamanını doldurduğu ve bu yüzden bunların bir kenara bırakılıp yeni bir kültür icat edilmesi gerektiğidir. Modernizm ticaretten felsefeye her şeyin sorgulanmasının gerekliliğini savunur. Böylelikle kültürün öğeleri yeni ve daha iyi olanla değiştirilebilir. Modernizme göre 20. yüzyılın ortaya çıkardığı yeni değişiklikler ve yenilikler kalıcıydı, aynı zamanda yeni oldukları için 'iyi' ve 'güzeldi' ve toplum dünya görüşünü bu öngörülere göre gözden geçirip uyarlamalıydı.
Modernizm tanınmış gelenekleri kıran bir stil anlatmak için kullanılmıştır.Yeni bir çağında duyarlılığına daha yerinde formları yaratmayı amaçlamıştır. Bazıları 20. yüzyılda gözlemlenen modernizmi "modernizm" ve "postmodernizm" olmak üzere iki harekette incelerler. Fakat bazı görüşlere göre modernizm ve postmodernizm bir hareketin sadece iki farklı açısıdır.
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[göster] g • t • dSosyoloji kuramları
[göster] g • t • dModern mimari
Kategoriler: Mimarlık taslaklarıSanat taslaklarıEdebiyat taslaklarıFelsefe taslaklarıModernizm
قس انگلیسی
Modernism, in its broadest definition, is modern thought, character, or practice. More specifically, the term describes the modernist movement in the arts, its set of cultural tendencies and associated cultural movements, originally arising from wide-scale and far-reaching changes to Western society in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In particular the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by the horror of World War I, were among the factors that shaped Modernism. Related terms are modern, modernist, contemporary, and postmodern.
In art, Modernism explicitly rejects the ideology of realism[2][3][4] and makes use of the works of the past, through the application of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody in new forms.[5][6][7] Modernism also rejects the lingering certainty of Enlightenment thinking, as well as the idea of a compassionate, all-powerful Creator.[8][9]
In general, the term modernism encompasses the activities and output of those who felt the "traditional" forms of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, social organization and daily life were becoming outdated in the new economic, social, and political conditions of an emerging fully industrialized world. The poet Ezra Pound's 1934 injunction to "Make it new!" was paradigmatic of the movement's approach towards the obsolete. Another paradigmatic exhortation was articulated by philosopher and composer Theodor Adorno, who, in the 1940s, challenged conventional surface coherence and appearance of harmony typical of the rationality of Enlightenment thinking.[10] A salient characteristic of modernism is self-consciousness. This self-consciousness often led to experiments with form and work that draws attention to the processes and materials used (and to the further tendency of abstraction).[11]
The modernist movement, at the beginning of the 20th century, marked the first time that the term avant-garde, with which the movement was labeled until the word "modernism" prevailed, was used for the arts (rather than in its original military and political context).[12]
Contents [show]
[edit]Present-day perspectives

Some commentators define Modernism as a socially progressive trend of thought that affirms the power of human beings to create, improve and reshape their environment with the aid of practical experimentation, scientific knowledge, or technology.[13] From this perspective, Modernism encouraged the re-examination of every aspect of existence, from commerce to philosophy, with the goal of finding that which was 'holding back' progress, and replacing it with new ways of reaching the same end. Others focus on Modernism as an aesthetic introspection. This facilitates consideration of specific reactions to the use of technology in the First World War, and anti-technological and nihilistic aspects of the works of diverse thinkers and artists spanning the period from Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) to Samuel Beckett (1906–1989).[14]
[edit]History

[edit]Beginnings: the 19th century


Eugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People, 1830, a Romantic work of art
The first half of the 19th century for Europe was marked by a number of wars and revolutions, which contributed to a turning from the realities of the political and social fragmentation that were taking place, and a further trend towards Romanticism.[citation needed] Romanticism had been, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a revolt against the effects of the Industrial Revolution and bourgeois values,[2][3][4] while emphasizing individual, subjective experience, the sublime, and the supremacy of "Nature", as subjects for art, and revolutionary, or radical extensions of expression, and individual liberty.


A Realist portrait of Otto von Bismarck
By mid-century, however, a synthesis of the ideas of Romanticism with more stable political ideas had emerged,[citation needed] partly in reaction to the failed Romantic and democratic Revolutions of 1848. It was exemplified by Otto von Bismarck's Realpolitik and by the "practical" philosophical ideas of Auguste Comte's positivism.[citation needed] This stabilizing synthesis of the Realist political and Romantic aesthetic ideology, was called by various names: in Great Britain it is the Victorian era. Central to this synthesis were common assumptions and institutional frames of reference, including the religious norms found in Christianity, scientific norms found in classical physics, as well as the idea that the depiction of external reality from an objective standpoint was not only possible but desirable.[citation needed] Cultural critics and historians called this ideology, realism, although this term is not universal. In philosophy, the rationalist, materialist and positivist movements established the primacy of reason.
Against this current, however, ran another series of ideas, some of which were a direct continuation of Romantic schools of thought. Amongst those who followed these ideas were the English poets and painters that constituted the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, who, from about 1850, opposed the dominant trend of industrial Victorian England, because of their "opposition to technical skill without inspiration"[15] They were influenced by the writings of the art critic John Ruskin (1819–1900), who had strong feelings about the role of art in helping to improve the lives of the urban working classes, in the rapidly expanding industrial cities of Britain.[16] Rationalism was also had other opponents. In particular, reaction to the philosopher Hegel's (1770–1831) ) dialectic view of civilization and history from Friedrich Nietzsche and Søren Kierkegaard. Together these different reactions, challenged the comforting ideas of certainty derived from a belief in civilization, history, or pure reason.[citation needed]
Indeed from the 1870s onward, the idea that history and civilization were inherently progressive, and that progress was always good (and had no sharp breaks), came under increasing attack. The composer Richard Wagner (1813–83) (Der Ring des Nibelungen, 1853–70) and playwright Henrik Ibsen (1828–1906) were prominent in their critiques of contemporary civilization and for warnings that accelerating "progress" would lead to the creation of individuals detached from social values and isolated from their fellow men.[citation needed] Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, and could not move forward in its present form. In addition the philosopher Schopenhauer (1788–1860) (The World as Will and Idea, 1819) called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche.


Odilon Redon, Guardian Spirit of the Waters, 1878, charcoal on paper, The Art Institute of Chicago
Two of the most significant thinkers of the period were biologist Charles Darwin (1809–82), author of On Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859), and political scientist Karl Marx (1818–83), author of Capital (1867). Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness. In particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as "lower animals" proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, and that the workers were anything but free. Both thinkers were major influences on the development of modernism.[citation needed] This is not to say that all modernists, or modernist movements rejected either religion, or all aspects of Enlightenment thought, rather that modernism questioned the axioms of the previous age.[citation needed]
Historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. William Everdell, for example, has argued that modernism began in the 1870s, when metaphorical (or ontological) continuity began to yield to the discrete with mathematician Richard Dedekind's (1831–1916) Dedekind cut, and Ludwig Boltzmann's (1844–1906) statistical thermodynamics.[17] Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885-86 with Seurat's Divisionism, the "dots" used to paint "A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte." On the other hand Clement Greenberg called Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) "the first real Modernist",[18] though he also wrote, "What can be safely called Modernism emerged in the middle of the last century—and rather locally, in France, with Baudelaire in literature and Manet in painting, and perhaps with Flaubert, too, in prose fiction. (It was a while later, and not so locally, that Modernism appeared in music and architecture)."[19] And cabaret, which gave birth to so many of the arts of modernism, may be said to have begun in France in 1881 with the opening of the Black Cat in Montmartre, the beginning of the ironic monologue, and the founding of the Society of Incoherent Arts.[20]
The beginning of the 20th century marked the first time a movement in the arts was described as "avant-garde"—a term previously used in military and political contexts,[12] which remained to describe movements which identify themselves as attempting to overthrow some aspect of tradition or the status quo.[citation needed] Much later Surrealism gained the fame among the public of being the most extreme form of modernism, or "the avant-garde of modernism".[21]
Separately, in the arts and letters, two ideas originating in France would have particular impact. The first was impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors (en plein air). Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, but instead see light itself. The school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. Initially rejected from the most important commercial show of the time, the government-sponsored Paris Salon, the Impressionists organized yearly group exhibitions in commercial venues during the 1870s and 1880s, timing them to coincide with the official Salon. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by inferior artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention, and opened commercial doors to the movement.
The second French school was Symbolism, which literary historians see beginning with the poet Charles Baudelaire (1861–67) (Fleur du mal, 1857), and including the later poets, Arthur Rimbaud (1854–91), Paul Verlaine (1844–96), Stephane Mallarme (1842–98), and Paul Valery (1871–1945). The symbolists "stressed the priority of suggestion and evocation over direct description and explicit analogy," and were especially interested in "the musical properties of language."[22]
At the same time social, political, and economic forces were at work that would become the basis to argue for a radically different kind of art and thinking. Among these was steam-powered industrialization, and especially the development of railways, starting in Britain in the 1830s, and the subsequent advancements in physics, engineering and architecture associated with this. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron and plate glass exhibition hall built for The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station (1854) and King's Cross Station (1852). These technological advances led to the building of later structures like the Brooklyn Bridge (1883) and the Eiffel Tower (1889). The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be. These engineering marvels[citation needed] radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people.
The human misery of crowded industrial cities, as well as, on the other hand, the new possibilities created by science, brought changes that would shake European civilization, which had, until then, regarded itself as having a continuous and progressive line of development from the Renaissance.[citation needed] Furthermore the human experience of time itself was altered, with the development of electric telegraph from 1837, and the adoption of Standard Time by British railway companies from 1845, and in the rest of the world over the next fifty years.
The changes that took place at the beginning of the 20th-century are emphasized by the fact that many modern disciplines, including sciences such as physics, mathematics, neuroscience and economics, and arts such as ballet and architecture, call their pre-20th century forms classical.
[edit]Late 19th to early 20th centuries

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Henri Matisse, Le bonheur de vivre, 1905-6, Barnes Foundation, Merion, PA. An early Fauvist masterpiece
In the 1880s a strand of thinking began to assert that it was necessary to push aside previous norms entirely, instead of merely revising past knowledge in light of contemporary techniques. The growing movement in art paralleled developments in physics, such as Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity (1905); innovations in industry, such as the development of the internal combustion engine; and the increased role of the social sciences in public policy. Indeed it was argued that, if the nature of reality itself was in question, and if previous restrictions which had been in place around human activity were dissolving, then art, too, would have to radically change. Thus, in the first twenty years of the 20th century many writers, thinkers, and artists broke with the traditional means of organizing literature, painting, and music; the results were abstract art, atonal music, and the stream of consciousness technique in the novel.[citation needed]


Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), is considered to have re-invented the art of painting. Many of Picasso's friends and colleagues, even fellow painters Henri Matisse and Georges Braque, were upset when they saw this painting.
Influential in the early days of Modernism were the theories of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), and Ernst Mach (1838–1916). Mach argued, beginning in the 1880s with The Science of Mechanics (1883), that the mind had a fundamental structure, and that subjective experience was based on the interplay of parts of the mind. Freud's first major work was Studies on Hysteria (with Josef Breuer) (1895). According to Freud's ideas, all subjective reality was based on the play of basic drives and instincts, through which the outside world was perceived. As a philosopher of science Ernst Mach was a major influence on logical positivism, and through his criticism of Isaac Newton, a forerunner of Einstein's theory of relativity. According to these ideas of Mach, the relations of objects in nature were not guaranteed but known only through a sort of mental shorthand.[citation needed] This represented a break with the past, in that previously it was believed that external and absolute reality could impress itself, as it was, on an individual, as, for example, in John Locke's (1632–1704) empiricism, which saw the mind beginning as a tabula rasa (Essay concerning Human Understanding, 1690).[citation needed] Freud's description of subjective states, involving an unconscious mind full of primal impulses, and counterbalancing self-imposed restrictions, was combined by Carl Jung (1875–1961) with the idea of the collective unconscious, with which the conscious mind fought or embraced. While Charles Darwin's work remade the aristotelian concept of "man, the animal" in the public mind, Jung suggested that human impulses toward breaking social norms were not the product of childishness, or ignorance, but rather derived from the essential nature of the human animal.[citation needed]
Friedrich Nietzsche was another major precursor of modernism[need quotation to verify] with a philosophy in which psychological drives, specifically the 'Will to power', were more important than facts, or things. Henri Bergson (1859–1941), on the other hand, emphasized the difference between scientific, clock time and the direct, subjective, human experience of time[23] His work on time and consciousness "had a great influence on twentieth-century novelists," especially those modernists who used the stream of consciousness technique, such as Dorothy Richardson, Pointed Roofs, (1915), James Joyce, Ulysses (1922) and Virginia Woolf (1882–1941) Mrs Dalloway (1925), To the Lighthouse (1927).[24] Also important in Bergson's philosophy was the idea of élan vital, the life force, which "brings about the creative evolution of everything"[25] His philosophy also placed a high value on intuition, though without rejecting the importance of the intellect.[25] These various thinkers were united by a distrust of Victorian[citation needed] positivism and certainty.
Out of this collision of ideals derived from Romanticism, and an attempt to find a way for knowledge to explain that which was as yet unknown, came the first wave of works, which, while their authors considered them extensions of existing trends in art, broke the implicit contract with the general public that artists were the interpreters and representatives of bourgeois culture and ideas. These "modernist" landmarks include the atonal ending of Arnold Schoenberg's Second String Quartet in 1908, the expressionist paintings of Wassily Kandinsky starting in 1903 and culminating with his first abstract painting and the founding of the Blue Rider group in Munich in 1911, and the rise of fauvism and the inventions of cubism from the studios of Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque and others in the years between 1900 and 1910.
Important literary precursors of Modernism were: Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–81) (Crime and Punishment (1866), The Brothers Karamazov (1880);[citation needed] Walt Whitman (1819–92) (Leaves of Grass) (1855–91); Charles Baudelaire (1821–67) (Les Fleurs du mal), Rimbaud (1854–91) (Illuminations, 1874); August Strindberg (1849–1912), especially his later plays, including, the trilogy To Damascus 1898–1901, A Dream Play (1902), The Ghost Sonata (1907).
This modern movement broke with the past in the first three decades of the 20th century, and radically redefined various art forms. The following is list of significant literary figures between 1900-1930 (though it includes a number whose careers extended beyond 1930):
Anna Akhmatova (1889-1966)
Gabriele d'Annunzio (1863-1938)
Guillaume Apollinaire (1880-1918)
Andrei Bely (1880-1934)
Gottfried Benn (1886-1956)
Ivan Cankar (1876-1918)
Constantine P. Cavafy (1863-1933)
Joseph Conrad (1857-1924)
Alfred Döblin (1878-1957)
H.D. (Hilda Doolittle) (1886-1961)
T. S. Eliot (1888-1965)
William Faulkner (1897-1962)
E. M. Forster (1879-1971)
Ernest Hemingway (1891-1961)
Hugo von Hofmannsthal (1874-1929)
Max Jacob (1876-1944)
James Joyce (1882-1941)[26]
Franz Kafka (1883-1924)
Georg Kaiser (1878-1945)
D. H. Lawrence (1885-1930)
Wyndham Lewis (1882-1957)
Thomas Mann (1875-1955)
Eugene O'Neill (1888-1953)
Fernando Pessoa (1888-1935)
Mário de Sá-Carneiro (1890-1916)
Ezra Pound (1885-1972)
Marcel Proust (1871-1922)
Dorothy Richardson (1873-1957)
Rainer Marie Rilke (1875-1926)
Gertrude Stein (1874-1946)
Wallace Stevens (1875-1955)
Italo Svevo (1861-1928)
Ernst Toller (1893-1939)
George Trakl (1887-1914)
Paul Valéry (1871-1945)
Robert Walser (1878-1956)
William Carlos Williams (1883-1963)
Frank Wedekind (1864-1918)
Virginia Woolf (1882-1941)
W. B. Yeats (1865-1939)
[edit]Explosion, 1910–1930


Portrait of Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, 1910, The Art Institute of Chicago
On the eve of the First World War a growing tension and unease with the social order, already seen in the Russian Revolution of 1905 and the agitation of "radical" parties, also manifested itself in artistic works in every medium which radically simplified or rejected previous practice. Young painters such as Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse were causing a shock with their rejection of traditional perspective as the means of structuring paintings—a step that none of the impressionists, not even Cézanne, had taken. In 1907, as Picasso was painting Demoiselles d'Avignon, Oskar Kokoschka was writing Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen (Murderer, Hope of Women), the first Expressionist play (produced with scandal in 1909), and Arnold Schoenberg was composing his String Quartet No.2 in F-sharp minor, his first composition "without a tonal center". In 1911, Kandinsky painted Bild mit Kreis (Picture With a Circle) which he later called the first abstract painting. In 1913—the year of Edmund Husserl's Ideas, Niels Bohr's quantized atom, Ezra Pound's founding of imagism, the Armory Show in New York, and, in Saint Petersburg, the "first futurist opera," Victory Over the Sun—another Russian composer Igor Stravinsky, working in Paris for Sergei Diaghilev and the Ballets Russes, composed The Rite of Spring for a ballet, choreographed by Vaslav Nijinsky, that depicted human sacrifice.
These developments began to give a new meaning to what was termed "modernism": It embraced discontinuity, rejecting smooth change in everything from biology to fictional character development and filmmaking. It approved disruption, rejecting or moving beyond simple realism in literature and art, and rejecting or dramatically altering tonality in music. This set modernists apart from 19th-century artists, who had tended to believe not only in smooth change ("evolutionary" rather than "revolutionary") but also in the progressiveness of such change—"progress". Writers like Dickens and Tolstoy, painters like Turner, and musicians like Brahms were not radicals or "Bohemians", but were instead valued members of society who produced art that added to society, even when critiquing its less desirable aspects. Modernism, while still "progressive", increasingly saw traditional forms and traditional social arrangements as hindering progress, and therefore recast the artist as a revolutionary, overthrowing rather than enlightening.
Futurism exemplifies this trend. In 1909, the Parisian newspaper Le Figaro published F.T. Marinetti's first manifesto. Soon afterward a group of painters (Giacomo Balla, Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Luigi Russolo, and Gino Severini) co-signed the Futurist Manifesto. Modeled on the famous "Communist Manifesto" of the previous century, such manifestoes put forward ideas that were meant to provoke and to gather followers. Strongly influenced by Bergson and Nietzsche, Futurism was part of the general trend of Modernist rationalization of disruption.
Modernist philosophy and art were still viewed as only a part of the larger social movement. Artists such as Klimt and Cézanne, and composers such as Mahler and Richard Strauss were "the terrible moderns"—those more avant-garde were more heard of than heard. Polemics in favor of geometric or purely abstract painting were largely confined to "little magazines" (like The New Age in the UK) with tiny circulations. Modernist primitivism and pessimism were controversial, but were not seen as representative of the Edwardian mainstream, which was more inclined towards a Victorian faith in progress and liberal optimism.
However, the Great War and its subsequent events were the cataclysmic upheavals that late 19th-century artists such as Brahms had worried about, and avant-gardists had embraced. First, the failure of the previous status quo seemed self-evident to a generation that had seen millions die fighting over scraps of earth—prior to the war, it had been argued that no one would fight such a war, since the cost was too high. Second, the birth of a machine age changed the conditions of life—machine warfare became a touchstone of the ultimate reality. Finally, the immensely traumatic nature of the experience dashed basic assumptions: realism seemed bankrupt when faced with the fundamentally fantastic nature of trench warfare, as exemplified by books such as Erich Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front (1929). Moreover, the view that mankind was making slow and steady moral progress came to seem ridiculous in the face of the senseless slaughter. The First World War fused the harshly mechanical geometric rationality of technology with the nightmarish irrationality of myth.


André Masson, Pedestal Table in the Studio 1922, early example of Surrealism
Thus modernism, which had been a minority taste before the war, came to define the 1920s. It appeared in Europe in such critical movements as Dada and then in constructive movements such as surrealism, as well as in smaller movements such as the Bloomsbury Group. Again, impressionism was a precursor: breaking with the idea of national schools, artists and writers adopted ideas of international movements. Surrealism, cubism, Bauhaus, and Leninism are all examples of movements that rapidly found adopters far beyond their geographic origins.
Each of these "modernisms," as some observers labelled them at the time, stressed new methods to produce new results. The poet Ezra Pound's 1934 injunction to "Make it new!" was paradigmatic of the movement's approach towards the obsolete.[citation needed]
Exhibitions, theatre, cinema, books and buildings all served to cement in the public view the perception that the world was changing. Hostile reaction often followed, as paintings were spat upon, riots organized at the opening of works, and political figures denounced modernism as unwholesome and immoral. At the same time, the 1920s were known as the "Jazz Age", and the public showed considerable enthusiasm for cars, air travel, the telephone and other technological advances.
By 1930, modernism had won a place in the establishment, including the political and artistic establishment, although by this time modernism itself had changed. There was a general reaction in the 1920s against the pre-1918 modernism, which emphasized its continuity with a past while rebelling against it, and against the aspects of that period which seemed excessively mannered, irrational, and emotionalistic. The post-World War period, at first, veered either to systematization or nihilism and had, as perhaps its most paradigmatic movement, Dada.
While some writers attacked the madness of the new modernism, others described it as soulless and mechanistic. Among modernists there were disputes about the importance of the public, the relationship of art to audience, and the role of art in society. Modernism comprised a series of sometimes contradictory responses to the situation as it was understood, and the attempt to wrestle universal principles from it. In the end science and scientific rationality, often taking models from the 18th-century Enlightenment, came to be seen as the source of logic and stability, while the basic primitive sexual and unconscious drives, along with the seemingly counter-intuitive workings of the new machine age, were taken as the basic emotional substance. From these two seemingly incompatible poles, modernists began to fashion a complete weltanschauung that could encompass every aspect of life.
[edit]Modernism: 1930–1945


Piet Mondrian, Composition No. 10, 1939–42, oil on canvas, 80 x 73 cm, private collection
By 1930, Modernism had entered popular culture. With the increasing urbanization of populations, it was beginning to be looked to as the source for ideas to deal with the challenges of the day.[citation needed] As modernism was studied in universities, it was developing a self-conscious theory of its own importance. Popular culture, which was not derived from high culture but instead from its own realities (particularly mass production) fueled much modernist innovation. By 1930 The New Yorker magazine began publishing new and modern ideas by young writers and humorists like Dorothy Parker, Robert Benchley, E.B. White, S.J. Perelman, and James Thurber, amongst others. Modern ideas in art appeared in commercials and logos, the famous London Underground logo, designed by Edward Johnston in 1919, being an early example of the need for clear, easily recognizable and memorable visual symbols.
Another strong influence at this time was Marxism. After the generally primitivistic/irrationalist aspect of pre-World War I Modernism, which for many modernists precluded any attachment to merely political solutions, and the neoclassicism of the 1920s, as represented most famously by T. S. Eliot and Igor Stravinsky—which rejected popular solutions to modern problems—the rise of Fascism, the Great Depression, and the march to war helped to radicalise a generation. The Russian Revolution of 1917 catalyzed the fusion of political radicalism and utopianism,[citation needed] with more expressly political stances. Bertolt Brecht, W. H. Auden, André Breton, Louis Aragon and the philosophers Antonio Gramsci and Walter Benjamin are perhaps the most famous exemplars of this modernist form of Marxism. This move to the radical[citation needed] left, however, was neither universal, nor definitional, and there is no particular reason to associate modernism, fundamentally, with 'the left'. Modernists explicitly of 'the right' include Salvador Dalí, Wyndham Lewis, T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, the Dutch author Menno ter Braak and others.[citation needed]
One of the most visible changes of this period was the adoption of new technologies into daily life of ordinary people. Electricity, the telephone, the radio, the automobile—and the need to work with them, repair them and live with them—created social change. The kind of disruptive moment that only a few knew in the 1880s became a common occurrence. For example, the speed of communication reserved for the stock brokers of 1890 became part of family life, at least in North America. Associated with urbanization and changing social mores also came smaller families and changed relationships between parents and their children.
[edit]After World War II (mainly the visual and performing arts)



Jackson Pollock, No. 5, 1948, oil on fiberboard, 244 x 122 cm. (96 x 48 in.), private collection
[edit]Introduction
In Britain and America, modernism as a literary movement is considered by some scholars to be relevant only up to the early 1930s[citation needed], and "modernist" is less frequently used to describe authors prominent after 1945. For example, The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature sees modernism ending by c.1939.[27] This is somewhat true for all areas of culture, with the exception of the visual and performing arts,[28] though, with regard to music, Paul Griffiths notes that, while modernism "seemed to be a spent force" by the late 1920s, after World War II, "a new generation of composers - Boulez, Barraqué, Babbitt, Nono, Stockhausen, Xenakis" revived modernism.[29]
All the same, with regard to British and American literature, "When (if) modernism petered out and postmodernism began has been contested almost as hotly as when the transition from Victorianism to modernism occurred".[30] Thus a major writer of this period, the novelist and playwright Samuel Beckett, has been described as both the last modernist as well as one of the first postmodernists. While Basil Bunting (1900-85) published his important modernist poem Briggflatts in 1965.
The post-war period left the capitals of Europe in upheaval with an urgency to economically and physically rebuild and to politically regroup. In Paris (the former center of European culture and the former capital of the art world) the climate for art was a disaster. Important collectors, dealers, and modernist artists, writers, and poets had fled Europe for New York and America. The surrealists and modern artists from every cultural center of Europe had fled the onslaught of the Nazis for safe haven in the United States. Many of those who didn't flee perished. A few artists, notably Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and Pierre Bonnard, remained in France and survived.
The 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American abstract expressionism, a modernist movement that combined lessons learned from Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, surrealism, Joan Miró, cubism, Fauvism, and early modernism via great teachers in America like Hans Hofmann and John D. Graham. American artists benefited from the presence of Piet Mondrian, Fernand Léger, Max Ernst and the André Breton group, Pierre Matisse's gallery, and Peggy Guggenheim's gallery The Art of This Century, as well as other factors.
[edit]Pollock and abstract influences
During the late 1940s Jackson Pollock's radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for all contemporary art that followed him. To some extent Pollock realized that the journey toward making a work of art was as important as the work of art itself. Like Pablo Picasso's innovative reinventions of painting and sculpture in the early 20th century via cubism and constructed sculpture, Pollock redefined the way art gets made. His move away from easel painting and conventionality was a liberating signal to the artists of his era and to all who came after. Artists realized that Jackson Pollock's process—placing unstretched raw canvas on the floor where it could be attacked from all four sides using artistic and industrial materials; dripping and throwing linear skeins of paint; drawing, staining, and brushing; using imagery and non-imagery—essentially blasted artmaking beyond any prior boundary. Abstract expressionism generally expanded and developed the definitions and possibilities available to artists for the creation of new works of art.


Barnett Newman, Who's Afraid of Red, Yellow and Blue?, 1966. Typical of Newman's later work, with the use of pure and vibrant color
The other abstract expressionists followed Pollock's breakthrough with new breakthroughs of their own. In a sense the innovations of Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, Mark Rothko, Philip Guston, Hans Hofmann, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Ad Reinhardt, Robert Motherwell, Peter Voulkos and others opened the floodgates to the diversity and scope of all the art that followed them. Rereadings into abstract art by art historians such as Linda Nochlin,[31] Griselda Pollock[32] and Catherine de Zegher[33] critically show, however, that pioneering women artists who produced major innovations in modern art had been ignored by official accounts of its history.
[edit]In the 1960s after abstract expressionism
Main articles: Post-painterly abstraction, Color field painting, Lyrical abstraction, Arte Povera, Process art, and Western painting
In abstract painting during the 1950s and 1960s several new directions like hard-edge painting and other forms of geometric abstraction began to appear in artist studios and in radical avant-garde circles as a reaction against the subjectivism of abstract expressionism. Clement Greenberg became the voice of post-painterly abstraction when he curated an influential exhibition of new painting that toured important art museums throughout the United States in 1964. Color field painting, hard-edge painting and lyrical abstraction[34] emerged as radical new directions.
By the late 1960s however, postminimalism, process art and Arte Povera[35] also emerged as revolutionary concepts and movements that encompassed both painting and sculpture, via lyrical abstraction and the postminimalist movement, and in early conceptual art.[35] Process art as inspired by Pollock enabled artists to experiment with and make use of a diverse encyclopedia of style, content, material, placement, sense of time, and plastic and real space. Nancy Graves, Ronald Davis, Howard Hodgkin, Larry Poons, Jannis Kounellis, Brice Marden, Bruce Nauman, Richard Tuttle, Alan Saret, Walter Darby Bannard, Lynda Benglis, Dan Christensen, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Eva Hesse, Keith Sonnier, Richard Serra, Sam Gilliam, Mario Merz and Peter Reginato were some of the younger artists who emerged during the era of late modernism that spawned the heyday of the art of the late 1960s.[36]
[edit]Pop art


Eduardo Paolozzi. I was a Rich Man's Plaything (1947) is considered the initial standard bearer of "pop art" and first to display the word "pop".
Main articles: Pop art and Western painting
In 1962 the Sidney Janis Gallery mounted The New Realists, the first major pop art group exhibition in an uptown art gallery in New York City. Janis mounted the exhibition in a 57th Street storefront near his gallery at 15 E. 57th Street. The show sent shockwaves through the New York School and reverberated worldwide. Earlier in England in 1958 the term "Pop Art" was used by Lawrence Alloway to describe paintings that celebrated consumerism of the post World War II era. This movement rejected abstract expressionism and its focus on the hermeneutic and psychological interior in favor of art that depicted and often celebrated material consumer culture, advertising, and iconography of the mass production age. The early works of David Hockney and the works of Richard Hamilton and Eduardo Paolozzi (who created the groundbreaking I was a Rich Man's Plaything, 1947) are considered seminal examples in the movement. Meanwhile in the downtown scene in New York's East Village 10th Street galleries, artists were formulating an American version of pop art. Claes Oldenburg had his storefront, and the Green Gallery on 57th Street began to show the works of Tom Wesselmann and James Rosenquist. Later Leo Castelli exhibited the works of other American artists, including those of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein for most of their careers. There is a connection between the radical works of Marcel Duchamp and Man Ray, the rebellious Dadaists with a sense of humor, and pop artists like Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol, and Roy Lichtenstein, whose paintings reproduce the look of Benday dots, a technique used in commercial reproduction.
[edit]Minimalism
Main articles: Minimalism, Minimal music, Literary minimalism, Postminimalism, and 20th-century Western painting
By the early 1960s minimalism emerged as an abstract movement in art (with roots in geometric abstraction of Kazimir Malevich, the Bauhaus and Piet Mondrian) that rejected the idea of relational and subjective painting, the complexity of abstract expressionist surfaces, and the emotional zeitgeist and polemics present in the arena of action painting. Minimalism argued that extreme simplicity could capture all of the sublime representation needed in art. Associated with painters such as Frank Stella, minimalism in painting, as opposed to other areas, is a modernist movement. Minimalism is variously construed either as a precursor to postmodernism, or as a postmodern movement itself. In the latter perspective, early minimalism yielded advanced modernist works, but the movement partially abandoned this direction when some artists like Robert Morris changed direction in favor of the anti-form movement.
Hal Foster, in his essay The Crux of Minimalism,[37] examines the extent to which Donald Judd and Robert Morris both acknowledge and exceed Greenbergian modernism in their published definitions of minimalism.[37] He argues that minimalism is not a "dead end" of modernism, but a "paradigm shift toward postmodern practices that continue to be elaborated today."[37]
[edit]Postminimalism


Smithson's "Spiral Jetty" from atop Rozel Point, in mid-April 2005. Created in 1970, it still exists although it has often been submerged by the fluctuating lake level. It consists of some 6500 tons of basalt, earth and salt.
In the late 1960s Robert Pincus-Witten[35] coined the term postminimalism to describe minimalist-derived art which had content and contextual overtones that minimalism rejected. The term was applied by Pincus-Whitten to the work of Eva Hesse, Keith Sonnier, Richard Serra and new work by former minimalists Robert Smithson, Robert Morris, and Sol LeWitt, and Barry Le Va, and others. Other minimalists including Donald Judd, Dan Flavin, Carl Andre, Agnes Martin, John McCracken and others continued to produce late modernist paintings and sculpture for the remainders of their careers.
In the 1960s the work of the avant-garde minimalist composers La Monte Young, Philip Glass, Steve Reich, and Terry Riley also achieved prominence in the New York art world.
Since then, many artists have embraced minimal or postminimal styles and the label "postmodern" has been attached to them.
[edit]Collage, assemblage, installations
Main articles: Collage, Assemblage (art), and Installation art


Robert Rauschenberg, Untitled Combine, 1963
Related to abstract expressionism was the emergence of combining manufactured items with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting and sculpture. The work of Robert Rauschenberg exemplifies this trend. His "combines" of the 1950s were forerunners of pop art and installation art, and used assemblages of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and commercial photographs. Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Larry Rivers, John Chamberlain, Claes Oldenburg, George Segal, Jim Dine, and Edward Kienholz were among important pioneers of both abstraction and pop art. Creating new conventions of art-making, they made acceptable in serious contemporary art circles the radical inclusion in their works of unlikely materials. Another pioneer of collage was Joseph Cornell, whose more intimately scaled works were seen as radical because of both his personal iconography and his use of found objects.
[edit]Neo-Dada
Main article: Neo-Dada
In the early 20th century Marcel Duchamp exhibited a urinal as a sculpture. He professed his intent that people look at the urinal as if it were a work of art because he said it was a work of art. He referred to his work as "readymades". Fountain was a urinal signed with the pseudonym R. Mutt, the exhibition of which shocked the art world in 1917. This and Duchamp's other works are generally labelled as Dada. Duchamp can be seen as a precursor to conceptual art, other famous examples being John Cage's 4'33", which is four minutes and thirty three seconds of silence, and Rauschenberg's Erased de Kooning. Many conceptual works take the position that art is the result of the viewer viewing an object or act as art, not of the intrinsic qualities of the work itself. Thus, because Fountain was exhibited, it was a sculpture.
Marcel Duchamp famously gave up "art" in favor of chess. Avant-garde composer David Tudor created a piece, Reunion (1968), written jointly with Lowell Cross, that features a chess game in which each move triggers a lighting effect or projection. Duchamp and Cage played the game at the work's premier.[38]
Steven Best and Douglas Kellner identify Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns as part of the transitional phase, influenced by Marcel Duchamp, between modernism and postmodernism. Both used images of ordinary objects, or the objects themselves, in their work, while retaining the abstraction and painterly gestures of high modernism.[39]
Another trend in art associated with neo-Dada is the use of a number of different media together. Intermedia, a term coined by Dick Higgins and meant to convey new art forms along the lines of Fluxus, concrete poetry, found objects, performance art, and computer art. Higgins was publisher of the Something Else Press, a concrete poet, husband of artist Alison Knowles and an admirer of Marcel Duchamp.
[edit]Performance and happenings
Main articles: Performance art and Happenings


Carolee Schneemann, performing her piece Interior Scroll
During the late 1950s and 1960s artists with a wide range of interests began to push the boundaries of contemporary art. Yves Klein in France, and in New York City, Carolee Schneemann, Yayoi Kusama, Charlotte Moorman and Yoko Ono and in Germany Joseph Beuys, Wolf Vostell and Nam June Paik were pioneers of performance-based works of art. Groups like The Living Theater with Julian Beck and Judith Malina collaborated with sculptors and painters creating environments, radically changing the relationship between audience and performer especially in their piece Paradise Now. The Judson Dance Theater, located at the Judson Memorial Church, New York; and the Judson dancers, notably Yvonne Rainer, Trisha Brown, Elaine Summers, Sally Gross, Simonne Forti, Deborah Hay, Lucinda Childs, Steve Paxton and others; collaborated with artists Robert Morris, Robert Whitman, John Cage, Robert Rauschenberg, and engineers like Billy Klüver. Park Place Gallery was a center for musical performances by electronic composers Steve Reich, Philip Glass and other notable performance artists including Joan Jonas. These performances were intended as works of a new art form combining sculpture, dance, and music or sound, often with audience participation. They were characterized by the reductive philosophies of minimalism and the spontaneous improvisation and expressivity of abstract expressionism.
During the same period, various avant-garde artists created Happenings. Happenings were mysterious and often spontaneous and unscripted gatherings of artists and their friends and relatives in various specified locations, often incorporating exercises in absurdity, physicality, costuming, spontaneous nudity, and various random or seemingly disconnected acts. Notable creators of happenings included Allan Kaprow—who first used the term in 1958,[40] Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine, Red Grooms, and Robert Whitman.[41]
[edit]Intermedia, multi-media
Main article: Intermedia
Another trend in art which has been associated with the term postmodern is the use of a number of different media together. Intermedia, a term coined by Dick Higgins and meant to convey new art forms along the lines of Fluxus, concrete poetry, found objects, performance art, and computer art. Higgins was the publisher of the Something Else Press, a concrete poet married to artist Alison Knowles and an admirer of Marcel Duchamp. Ihab Hassan includes, "Intermedia, the fusion of forms, the confusion of realms," in his list of the characteristics of postmodern art.[42] One of the most common forms of "multi-media art" is the use of video-tape and CRT monitors, termed video art. While the theory of combining multiple arts into one art is quite old, and has been revived periodically, the postmodern manifestation is often in combination with performance art, where the dramatic subtext is removed, and what is left is the specific statements of the artist in question or the conceptual statement of their action.
[edit]Fluxus
Main article: Fluxus
Fluxus was named and loosely organized in 1962 by George Maciunas (1931–78), a Lithuanian-born American artist. Fluxus traces its beginnings to John Cage's 1957 to 1959 Experimental Composition classes at the New School for Social Research in New York City. Many of his students were artists working in other media with little or no background in music. Cage's students included Fluxus founding members Jackson Mac Low, Al Hansen, George Brecht and Dick Higgins.
Fluxus encouraged a do-it-yourself aesthetic and valued simplicity over complexity. Like Dada before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an anti-art sensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative practice. Fluxus artists preferred to work with whatever materials were at hand, and either created their own work or collaborated in the creation process with their colleagues.
Andreas Huyssen criticises attempts to claim Fluxus for postmodernism as "either the master-code of postmodernism or the ultimately unrepresentable art movement – as it were, postmodernism's sublime."[43] Instead he sees Fluxus as a major Neo-Dadaist phenomena within the avant-garde tradition. It did not represent a major advance in the development of artistic strategies, though it did express a rebellion against, "the administered culture of the 1950s, in which a moderate, domesticated modernism served as ideological prop to the Cold War."[44]
[edit]Late period
Main article: Late modernism


Brice Marden, Vine, 1992–93, oil on linen, 8 x 8.5 feet, Museum of Modern Art, New York
The continuation of abstract expressionism, color field painting, lyrical abstraction, geometric abstraction, minimalism, abstract illusionism, process art, pop art, postminimalism, and other late 20th-century modernist movements in both painting and sculpture continue through the first decade of the 21st century and constitute radical new directions in those mediums.[45][46][47]
At the turn of the 21st century, well-established artists such as Sir Anthony Caro, Lucian Freud, Cy Twombly, Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Agnes Martin, Al Held, Ellsworth Kelly, Helen Frankenthaler, Frank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Jules Olitski, Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine, James Rosenquist, Alex Katz, Philip Pearlstein, and younger artists including Brice Marden, Chuck Close, Sam Gilliam, Isaac Witkin, Sean Scully, Mahirwan Mamtani, Joseph Nechvatal, Elizabeth Murray, Larry Poons, Richard Serra, Walter Darby Bannard, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Ronald Davis, Dan Christensen, Joel Shapiro, Tom Otterness, Joan Snyder, Ross Bleckner, Archie Rand, Susan Crile, and dozens of others continued to produce vital and influential paintings and sculpture.
[edit]Differences between modernism and postmodernism
By the early 1980s the postmodern movement in art and architecture began to establish its position through various conceptual and intermedia formats. Postmodernism in music and literature began to take hold earlier. In music postmodernism is described in one reference work, as a "term introduced in the 1970s".[48] while in British literature, The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature sees modernism "ceding its predominance to postmodernism" as early as 1939.[49] However dates are highly debatable, especially as according to Andreas Huyssen: "one critic's postmodernism is another critic's modernism".[50] This includes those who are critical of the division between the two and see them as two aspects of the same movement, and believe that late modernism continues.[51]
Modernism is an encompassing label for a wide variety of cultural movements. Postmodernism is essentially a centralized movement that named itself, based on socio-political theory, although the term is now used in a wider sense to refer to activities from the 20th Century onwards which exhibit awareness of and reinterpret the modern.[52][53][54]
Postmodern theory asserts that the attempt to canonise modernism "after the fact" is doomed to undisambiguable contradictions.[55]
In a narrower sense, what was modernist was not necessarily also postmodern. Those elements of modernism which accentuated the benefits of rationality and socio-technological progress were only modernist.[56]
[edit]Goals of the movement

[edit]Rejection and detournement of tradition
Many modernists believed that by rejecting tradition they could discover radically new ways of making art.[citation needed] Arguably the most paradigmatic motive of modernism is the rejection of the obsolescence of tradition and its reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody in new forms.[5][6]
T. S. Eliot's emphasis on the relation of the artist to tradition. Eliot wrote the following:
"[W]e shall often find that not only the best, but the most individual parts of [a poet's] work, may be those in which the dead poets, his ancestors, assert their immortality most vigorously."[57]
Literary scholar Peter Childs sums up the complexity:
"There were paradoxical if not opposed trends towards revolutionary and reactionary positions, fear of the new and delight at the disappearance of the old, nihilism and fanatical enthusiasm, creativity and despair."[7]
These oppositions are inherent to modernism: it is in its broadest cultural sense the assessment of the past as different to the modern age, the recognition that the world was becoming more complex, and that the old "final authorities" (God, government, science, and reason) were subject to intense critical scrutiny.[citation needed]
[edit]Challenge to false harmony and coherence
A paradigmatic modernist exhortation was articulated by philosopher and composer Theodor Adorno, which in the 1940s, invited to challenge conventional surface coherence and appearance of harmony:[10]
"Modernity is a qualitative, not a chronological, category. Just as it cannot be reduced to abstract form, with equal necessity it must turn its back on conventional surface coherence, the appearance of harmony, the order corroborated merely by replication."[10]
Adorno would have us understand modernity as the rejection of the false rationality, harmony, and coherence of Enlightenment thinking, art, and music.[citation needed] Arnold Schoenberg rejected traditional tonal harmony, the hierarchical system of organizing works of music that had guided music making for at least a century and a half. He believed he had discovered a wholly new way of organizing sound, based in the use of twelve-note rows.
Abstract artists, taking as their examples the impressionists, as well as Paul Cézanne and Edvard Munch, began with the assumption that color and shape, not the depiction of the natural world, formed the essential characteristics of art. Wassily Kandinsky, Piet Mondrian, and Kazimir Malevich all believed in redefining art as the arrangement of pure color. The use of photography, which had rendered much of the representational function of visual art obsolete, strongly affected this aspect of modernism. However, these artists also believed that by rejecting the depiction of material objects they helped art move from a materialist to a spiritualist phase of development.
[edit]Pragmatic modernist architecture
Main article: International style (architecture)


Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's Seagram Building in New York City
Other modernists, especially those involved in design, had more pragmatic views. Modernist architects and designers believed that new technology rendered old styles of building obsolete. Le Corbusier thought that buildings should function as "machines for living in", analogous to cars, which he saw as machines for traveling in. Just as cars had replaced the horse, so modernist design should reject the old styles and structures inherited from Ancient Greece or from the Middle Ages. In some cases form superseded function. Following this machine aesthetic, modernist designers typically rejected decorative motifs in design, preferring to emphasize the materials used and pure geometrical forms. The skyscraper, such as Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's Seagram Building in New York (1956–1958), became the archetypal modernist building. Modernist design of houses and furniture also typically emphasized simplicity and clarity of form, open-plan interiors, and the absence of clutter.


The Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía (MNCARS) is the official name of Spain's national museum of 20th-century art, located in Madrid(informally shortened to the Museo Reina Sofía, Queen Sofia Museum. The photo shows the old building with the addition of the Elevator to the exterior of the structure with the close up of the modern art tower
Modernism reversed the 19th-century relationship of public and private: in the 19th century, public buildings were horizontally expansive for a variety of technical reasons, and private buildings emphasized verticality—to fit more private space on increasingly limited land. Conversely, in the 20th century, public buildings became vertically oriented and private buildings became organized horizontally. Many aspects of modernist design still persist within the mainstream of contemporary architecture today, though its previous dogmatism has given way to a more playful use of decoration, historical quotation, and spatial drama.In other arts such pragmatic considerations were less important.
[edit]Counter consumerism and mass culture
In literature and visual art some modernists sought to defy expectations mainly in order to make their art more vivid, or to force the audience to take the trouble to question their own preconceptions. This aspect of modernism has often seemed a reaction to consumer culture, which developed in Europe and North America in the late 19th century. Whereas most manufacturers try to make products that will be marketable by appealing to preferences and prejudices, high modernists rejected such consumerist attitudes in order to undermine conventional thinking. The art critic Clement Greenberg expounded this theory of modernism in his essay Avant-Garde and Kitsch.[58] Greenberg labelled the products of consumer culture "kitsch", because their design aimed simply to have maximum appeal, with any difficult features removed. For Greenberg, modernism thus formed a reaction against the development of such examples of modern consumer culture as commercial popular music, Hollywood, and advertising. Greenberg associated this with the revolutionary rejection of capitalism.
Some modernists did see themselves as part of a revolutionary culture—one that included political revolution. Others rejected conventional politics as well as artistic conventions, believing that a revolution of political consciousness had greater importance than a change in political structures. Many modernists saw themselves as apolitical. Others, such as T. S. Eliot, rejected mass popular culture from a conservative position. Some[58] even argue that modernism in literature and art functioned to sustain an elite culture which excluded the majority of the population.
[edit]Criticism and hostility



Franz Marc, The fate of the animals, 1913, oil on canvas. The work was displayed at the exhibition of "Entartete Kunst" in Munich, Nazi Germany, 1937.
The most controversial aspect of the modern movement was, and remains, its rejection of tradition.[citation needed] Modernism's stress on freedom of expression, experimentation, radicalism, and primitivism disregards conventional expectations. In many art forms this often meant startling and alienating audiences with bizarre and unpredictable effects, as in the strange and disturbing combinations of motifs in surrealism or the use of extreme dissonance and atonality in modernist music. In literature this often involved the rejection of intelligible plots or characterization in novels, or the creation of poetry that defied clear interpretation.
After the rise of Joseph Stalin, the Soviet Communist government rejected modernism on the grounds of alleged elitism, although it had previously endorsed futurism and constructivism. The Nazi government of Germany deemed modernism narcissistic and nonsensical, as well as "Jewish" and "Negro" (see Anti-semitism). The Nazis exhibited modernist paintings alongside works by the mentally ill in an exhibition entitled Degenerate Art. Accusations of "formalism" could lead to the end of a career, or worse. For this reason many modernists of the post-war generation felt that they were the most important bulwark against totalitarianism, the "canary in the coal mine", whose repression by a government or other group with supposed authority represented a warning that individual liberties were being threatened. Louis A. Sass compared madness, specifically schizophrenia, and modernism in a less fascist manner by noting their shared disjunctive narratives, surreal images, and incoherence.[59]
In fact, modernism flourished mainly in consumer/capitalist societies, despite the fact that its proponents often rejected consumerism itself. However, high modernism began to merge with consumer culture after World War II, especially during the 1960s. In Britain, a youth sub-culture emerged calling itself "modernist" (usually shortened to Mod), following such representative music groups as The Who and The Kinks. The likes of Bob Dylan, Serge Gainsbourg and The Rolling Stones combined popular musical traditions with modernist verse, adopting literary devices derived from James Joyce, Samuel Beckett, James Thurber, T. S. Eliot, Guillaume Apollinaire, Allen Ginsberg, and others. The Beatles developed along similar lines, creating various modernist musical effects on several albums, while musicians such as Frank Zappa, Syd Barrett and Captain Beefheart proved even more experimental. Modernist devices also started to appear in popular cinema, and later on in music videos. Modernist design also began to enter the mainstream of popular culture, as simplified and stylized forms became popular, often associated with dreams of a space age high-tech future.
This merging of consumer and high versions of modernist culture led to a radical transformation of the meaning of "modernism". First, it implied that a movement based on the rejection of tradition had become a tradition of its own. Second, it demonstrated that the distinction between elite modernist and mass consumerist culture had lost its precision. Some writers[who?] declared that modernism had become so institutionalized that it was now "post avant-garde", indicating that it had lost its power as a revolutionary movement. Many have interpreted this transformation as the beginning of the phase that became known as postmodernism. For others, such as art critic Robert Hughes, postmodernism represents an extension of modernism.
"Anti-modern" or "counter-modern" movements seek to emphasize holism, connection and spirituality as remedies or antidotes to modernism. Such movements see modernism as reductionist, and therefore subject to an inability to see systemic and emergent effects. Many modernists came to this viewpoint, for example Paul Hindemith in his late turn towards mysticism. Writers such as Paul H. Ray and Sherry Ruth Anderson, in The Cultural Creatives: How 50 Million People Are Changing the World (2000), Fredrick Turner in A Culture of Hope and Lester Brown in Plan B, have articulated a critique of the basic idea of modernism itself – that individual creative expression should conform to the realities of technology. Instead, they argue, individual creativity should make everyday life more emotionally acceptable.
Some traditionalist artists like Alexander Stoddart reject modernism generally as the product of "an epoch of false money allied with false culture".[60]
In some fields the effects of modernism have remained stronger and more persistent than in others. Visual art has made the most complete break with its past. Most major capital cities have museums devoted to Modern Art as distinct from post-Renaissance art (circa 1400 to circa 1900). Examples include the Museum of Modern Art in New York, the Tate Modern in London, and the Centre Pompidou in Paris. These galleries make no distinction between modernist and postmodernist phases, seeing both as developments within Modern Art.
[edit]See also

Late Modernism
American modernism
Modernismo
Remodernism
Avant garde
Russian avant-garde
Anti-art
Modern architecture
Contemporary architecture
Modern art
Contemporary art
Postmodern art
Sculpture
Experimental film
Modernism (music)
20th-century classical music
History of classical music traditions(section 20th century music)
Contemporary classical music
Experimental music
Contemporary literature
Contemporary French literature
Modern literature
Modernist literature
Experimental literature
Modernist poetry
Modernist poetry in English
History of theatre
Theatre of the absurd
[edit]Notes

^ Hans Hofmann biography, retrieved 30 January 2009
^ a b Barth (1979) quotation:
The ground motive of modernism, Graff asserts, was criticism of the nineteenth-century bourgeois social order and its world view. Its artistic strategy was the self-conscious overturning of the conventions of bourgeois realism [...] the antirationalist, antirealist, antibourgeois program of modernism [...] the modernists, carrying the torch of romanticism, taught us that linearity, rationality, consciousness, cause and effect, naïve illusionism, transparent language, innocent anecdote, and middle-class moral conventions are not the whole story
^ a b Graff (1973)
^ a b Graff (1975).
^ a b Eco (1990) p.95 quote:
Each of the types of repetition that we have examined is not limited to the mass media but belongs by right to the entire history of artistic creativity; plagiarism, quotation, parody, the ironic retake are typical of the entire artistic-literary tradition.
Much art has been and is repetitive. The concept of absolute originality is a contemporary one, born with Romanticism; classical art was in vast measure serial, and the "modern" avant-garde (at the beginning of this century) challenged the Romantic idea of "creation from nothingness," with its techniques of collage, mustachios on the Mona Lisa, art about art, and so on.
^ a b Steiner (1998) pp.489–90 quote:
(pp.489–90) The modernist movement which dominated art, music, letters during the first half of the century was, at critical points, a strategy of conservation, of custodianship. Stravinsky's genius developed through phases of recapitulation. He took from Machaut, Gesualdo, Monteverdi. He mimed Tchaikovsky and Gounod, the Beethoven piano sonatas, the symphonies of Haydn, the operas of Pergolesi and Glinks. He incorporated Debussy and Webern into his own idiom. In each instance the listener was meant to recognize the source, to grasp the intent of a transformation which left salient aspects of the original intact. The history of Picasso is marked by retrospection. The explicit variations on classical pastoral themes, the citations from and pastiches of Rembrandt, Goya, Velazquez, Manet, are external products of a constant revision, a 'seeing again' in the light of technical and cultural shifts. Had we only Picasso's sculptures, graphics, and paintings, we could reconstruct a fair portion of the development of the arts from the Minoan to Cezanne. In twentieth-century literature, the elements of reprise have been obsessive, and they have organized precisely those texts which at first seemed most revolutionary. 'The Waste Land', Ulysses, Pound's Cantos are deliberate assemblages, in-gatherings of a cultural past felt to be in danger of dissolution. The long sequence of imitations, translations, masked quotations, and explicit historical paintings in Robert Lowell's History has carried the same technique into the 1970s. [...] In modernism collage has been the representative device. The new, even at its most scandalous, has been set against an informing background and framework of tradition. Stravinsky, Picasso, Braque, Eliot, Joyce, Pound—the 'makers of the new'-- have been neo-classics, often as observant of canonic precedent as their seventeenth-century forbears.
^ a b Childs, Peter Modernism (Routledge, 2000). ISBN 0-415-19647-7. p. 17. Accessed on 8 February 2009.
^ Pericles Lewis, Modernism, Nationalism, and the Novel (Cambridge University Press, 2000). pp 38–39.
^ "[James] Joyce's Ulysses is a comedy not divine, ending, like Dante's, in the vision of a God whose will is our peace, but human all-too-human...." Peter Faulkner, Modernism (Taylor & Francis, 1990). p 60.
^ a b c Adorno, Theodor. Minima Moralia. Verso 2005, p. 218.
^ Gardner, Helen, Horst De la Croix, Richard G. Tansey, and Diane Kirkpatrick. Gardner's Art Through the Ages (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1991). ISBN 0-15-503770-6. p. 953.
^ a b Orton and Pollock (1996) p.141 quote:
The term avant-garde had a shorter provenance in the language and literature of art. It was not until the 20th century that its military or naval meaning (the foremost division or detachment of an advancing force) or the political usage (an elite party to lead the masses) was appropriated by art criticism. Modernist art history has evacuated the term's historical meanings, using it to signify an idea about the way in which art develops and artists function in relation to society.
^ "In the twentieth century, the social processes that bring this maelstrom into being, and keep it in a state of perpetual becoming, have come to be called 'modernization'. These world-historical processes have nourished an amazing variety of visions and ideas that aim to make men and women the subjects as well as the objects of modernization, to give them the power to change the world that is changing them, to make their way through the maelstrom and make it their own. Over the past century, these visions and values have come to be loosely grouped together under the name of 'modernism'" (Berman 1988, 16).
^ Lee Oser, The Ethics of Modernism: Moral ideas in Yeats, Eliot, Joyce, Woolf and Beckett (Cambridge University Press, 2007); F.J. Marker & C.D. Innes, Modernism in European Drama: Ibsen, Stringdberg, Pirandello, Beckett; Morag Shiach, "Situating Samuel Beckett" pp234-247 in The Cambridge Companion to the Modernist Novel, (Cambridge University Press, 2007); Kathryne V. Lindberg, Reading Pound Reading: Modernism After Nietzsche (Oxford University Press, 1987); Pericles Lewis, The Cambridge Introduction to Modernism (Cambridge University Press, 2007). pp21.
^ The Bloomsbury Guide to English Literature, ed. Marion Wynnne-Davies. New York: Prentice Hall, 1990, p.815.
^ The Bloomsbury Guide, p.816.
^ The First Moderns: Profiles in the Origin of Twentieth-Century Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997, Chapters 3 & 4.
^ Frascina and Harrison 1982, p. 5.
^ Clement Greenberg: Modernism and Postmodernism, seventh paragraph of the essay. Accessed on 15 June 2006
^ Phillip Dennis Cate and Mary Shaw, eds., The Spirit of Montmartre: Cabarets, Humor, and the Avant-Garde, 1875-1905. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University, 1996.
^ Guy Debord, 18 November 1958, as quoted in Supreme Height of the Defenders of Surrealism in Paris and the Revelation of their Real Value, Situationist International #2
^ The Oxford Companion to English Literature, ed. Margaret Drabble, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 966.
^ Diané Collinson, Fifty Major Philosophers: A Reference Guide, p.131.
^ The Bloomsbury Guides to English Literature: The Twentith Century, ed. Linda R. Williams. London: Bloomsbury, 1992, pp. 108-9.
^ a b Collinson, 132.
^ Ulysses, has been called "a demonstration and summation of the entire [Modernist] movement". Beebe, Maurice (Fall 1972). "Ulysses and the Age of Modernism". James Joyce Quarterly (University of Tulsa) 10 (1): p. 176.
^ Kevin J. H. Dettmar "Modernism". David Scott Kastan. Oxford University Press 2005. "http://www.oxfordreference.com 27 October 2011
^ Clement Greenberg: Modernism and Postmodernism, William Dobell Memorial Lecture, Sydney, Australia, Oct 31, 1979, Arts 54, No.6 (February 1980). His final essay on modernism. Retrieved October 26, 2011
^ Paul Griffiths "modernism" The Oxford Companion to Music. Ed. Alison Latham. Oxford University Press, 2002. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. "http://www.oxfordreference.com" 27 October 2011
^ "modernism", The Oxford Companion to English Literature. Edited by Dinah Birch. Oxford University Press Inc. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. "http://www.oxfordreference.com" 27 October 2011
^ Nochlin, Linda, Ch.1 in: Women Artists at the Millennium (edited by C. Armstrong and C. de Zegher) MIT Press, 2006.
^ Pollock, Griselda, Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive. Routledge, 2007.
^ De Zegher, Catherine, and Teicher, Hendel (eds.), 3 X Abstraction. New Haven: Yale University Press. 2005.
^ Aldrich, Larry. Young Lyrical Painters, Art in America, v.57, n6, November–December 1969, pp.104–113.
^ a b c Movers and Shakers, New York, "Leaving C&M", by Sarah Douglas, Art+Auction, March 2007, V.XXXNo7.
^ Martin, Ann Ray, and Howard Junker. The New Art: It's Way, Way Out, Newsweek 29 July 1968: pp.3,55–63.
^ a b c Hal Foster, The Return of the Real: The Avant-garde at the End of the Century, MIT Press, 1996, pp44-53. ISBN 0-262-56107-7
^ Craig Owens, Beyond Recognition: Representation, Power, and Culture, London and Berkeley: University of California Press (1992), pp74-75.
^ Steven Best, Douglas Kellner, The Postmodern Turn, Guilford Press, 1997, p174. ISBN 1-57230-221-6
^ "Fluxus & Happening – Allan Kaprow". Retrieved 4 May 2010.
^ Finkel, Jori (13 April 2008). "Happenings Are Happening Again". The New York Times. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
^ Ihab Hassan in Lawrence E. Cahoone, From Modernism to Postmodernism: An Anthology, Blackwell Publishing, 2003. p13. ISBN 0-631-23213-3
^ Andreas Huyssen, Twilight Memories: Marking Time in a Culture of Amnesia, Routledge, 1995. p192. ISBN 0-415-90934-1
^ Andreas Huyssen, Twilight Memories: Marking Time in a Culture of Amnesia, Routledge, 1995. p196. ISBN 0-415-90934-1
^ Ratcliff, Carter. The New Informalists, Art News, v. 68, n. 8, December 1969, p.72.
^ Barbara Rose. American Painting. Part Two: The Twentieth Century. Published by Skira – Rizzoli, New York, 1969
^ Walter Darby Bannard. "Notes on American Painting of the Sixties." Artforum, January 1970, vol. 8, no. 5, pp.40–45.
^ "postmodernism", The Penguin Companion to Classical Music, ed. Paul Griffiths. London: Penguin, 2004.
^ J. H. Dettmar "Modernism", The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature. David Scott Kastan. Oxford University Press 2005. "http://www.oxfordreference.com" 27 October 2011.
^ After the Great Divide: Modernism, Mass Culture and Postmodernism. London: Macmillan, 1988, p.59. Quoted in Hawthorn, Studying the Novel, p.63; Simon Malpas, Postmodern Debates, [1]
^ Simon Malpas, Postmodern Debates
^ Askoxford.com
^ Merriam-Webster's definition of postmodernism
^ Ruth Reichl, Cook's November 1989; American Heritage Dictionary's definition of the postmodern
^ Postmodernism. Georgetown university
^ Wagner, British, Irish and American Literature, Trier 2002, p. 210-2
^ T. S. Eliot Tradition and the individual talent" (1919), in Selected Essays. Paperback Edition. (Faber & Faber, 1999).
^ a b Clement Greenberg, Art and Culture, Beacon Press, 1961
^ Sass, Louis A. (1992). Madness and Modernism: Insanity in the Light of Modern Art, Literature, and Thought. New York: Basic Books. Cited in Bauer, Amy (2004). "Cognition, Constraints, and Conceptual Blends in Modernist Music", in The Pleasure of Modernist Music. ISBN 1-58046-143-3.
^ Jack, Ian (6 June 2009), "Set In Stone", Guardian
[edit]References

John Barth (1979) The Literature of Replenishment, later republished in The Friday Book'(1984)'.
Eco, Umberto (1990) Interpreting Serials in The limits of interpretation, pp. 83–100, excerpt
Gerald Graff (1973) The Myth of the Postmodernist Breakthrough, TriQuarterly, 26 (Winter, 1973) 383–417; rept in The Novel Today: Contemporary Writers on Modern Fiction Malcolm Bradbury, ed., (London: Fontana, 1977); reprinted in Proza Nowa Amerykanska, ed., Szice Krytyczne (Warsaw, Poland, 1984); reprinted in Postmodernism in American Literature: A Critical Anthology, Manfred Putz and Peter Freese, eds., (Darmstadt: Thesen Verlag, 1984), 58–81.
Gerald Graff (1975) Babbitt at the Abyss: The Social Context of Postmodern. American Fiction, TriQuarterly, No. 33 (Spring 1975), pp. 307–37; reprinted in Putz and Freese, eds., Postmodernism and American Literature.
Orton, Fred and Pollock, Griselda (1996) Avant-Gardes and Partisans Reviewed, Manchester University.
Steiner, George (1998) After Babel, ch.6 Topologies of culture, 3rd revised edition
[edit]Further reading

Armstrong, Carol and de Zegher, Catherine (eds.), Women Artists as the Millennium, Cambridge, MA: October Books, MIT Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-262-01226-3.
Aspray, William & Philip Kitcher, eds., History and Philosophy of Modern Mathematics, Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science vol XI, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988
Baker, Houston A., Jr., Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987
Berman, Marshall, All That Is Solid Melts Into Air: The Experience of Modernity. Second ed. London: Penguin, 1988. ISBN 0-14-010962-5.
Bradbury, Malcolm, & James McFarlane (eds.), Modernism: A Guide to European Literature 1890–1930 (Penguin "Penguin Literary Criticism" series, 1978, ISBN 0-14-013832-3).
Brush, Stephen G., The History of Modern Science: A Guide to the Second Scientific Revolution, 1800–1950, Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1988
Centre George Pompidou, Face a l'Histoire, 1933–1996. Flammarion, 1996. ISBN 2-85850-898-4.
Crouch, Christopher, Modernism in art design and architecture, New York: St. Martins Press, 2000
Everdell, William R., The First Moderns: Profiles in the Origins of Twentieth Century Thought, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997
Eysteinsson, Astradur, The Concept of Modernism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992
Friedman, Julia. Beyond Symbolism and Surrealism: Alexei Remizov's Synthetic Art, Northwestern University Press, 2010. ISBN 0-8101-2617-6 (Trade Cloth)
Frascina, Francis, and Charles Harrison (eds.). Modern Art and Modernism: A Critical Anthology. Published in association with The Open University. London: Harper and Row, Ltd. Reprinted, London: Paul Chapman Publishing, Ltd., 1982.
Gates, Henry Louis. "The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004.
Hughes, Robert, The Shock of the New: Art and the Century of Change (Gardners Books, 1991, ISBN 0-500-27582-3).
Kenner, Hugh, The Pound Era (1971), Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1973
Kern, Stephen, The Culture of Time and Space, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983
Kolocotroni, Vassiliki et al., ed.,Modernism: An Anthology of Sources and Documents (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998).
Levenson, Michael (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Modernism (Cambridge University Press, "Cambridge Companions to Literature" series, 1999, ISBN 0-521-49866-X).
Lewis, Pericles. The Cambridge Introduction to Modernism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
Nicholls, Peter, Modernisms: A Literary Guide (Hampshire and London: Macmillan, 1995).
Pevsner, Nikolaus, Pioneers of Modern Design: From William Morris to Walter Gropius (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-300-10571-1).
—, The Sources of Modern Architecture and Design (Thames & Hudson, "World of Art" series, 1985, ISBN 0-500-20072-6).
Pollock, Griselda, Generations and Geographies in the Visual Arts. (Routledge, London, 1996. ISBN 0-415-14128-1)
Pollock, Griselda, and Florence, Penny, Looking Back to the Future: Essays by Griselda Pollock from the 1990s. (New York: G&B New Arts Press, 2001. ISBN 90-5701-132-8)
Potter, Rachael (January 2009). "Obscene Modernism and the Trade in Salacious Books". Modernism/modernity (The Johns Hopkins University Press) 16 (1). ISSN 1071-6068.
Sass, Louis A. (1992). Madness and Modernism: Insanity in the Light of Modern Art, Literature, and Thought. New York: Basic Books. Cited in Bauer, Amy (2004). "Cognition, Constraints, and Conceptual Blends in Modernist Music", in The Pleasure of Modernist Music. ISBN 1-58046-143-3.
Schorske, Carl. Fin-de-Siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture. Vintage, 1980. 978-0394744780.
Schwartz, Sanford, The Matrix of Modernism: Pound, Eliot, and Early Twentieth Century Thought, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985
Van Loo, Sofie (ed.), Gorge(l). Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerp, 2006. ISBN 90-76979-35-9; ISBN 978-90-76979-35-9.
Weston, Richard, Modernism (Phaidon Press, 2001, ISBN 0-7148-4099-8).
de Zegher, Catherine, Inside the Visible. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996).
[edit]External links

Look up modernism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Modernism
Ballard, J.G., on Modernism.
Denzer, Anthony S., PhD, Masters of Modernism.
Hoppé, E.O., photographer, Edwardian Modernists.
Malady of Writing. Modernism you can dance to An online radio show that presents a humorous version of modernism
Modernism Lab @ Yale University
Modernism/Modernity, official publication of the Modernist Studies Association
Modernism vs. Postmodernism
Pope St. Pius X's encyclical Pascendi, in which he defines Modernism as "the synthesis of all heresies".
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قس چینی
現代主義從文化的歷史角度來說，是1914年前的幾十年中興起的新藝術與文學風格，是藝術家為了反抗19世紀末期的陈规旧矩，轉而用一種他們認為感情上更真實的方式，來表現出大家真正的感受與想法。
現代主義以科學為基礎，講求理性與邏輯，實驗探証。其中牛頓的力學理論、達爾文的進化論及弗洛伊德對自我的研究為現代主義奠定了重要的理论基礎(此論述需要引用佐證)。
有些人將20世紀區分為現代時期與後現代時期，有些人則認為它們是同一個大範圍時期的兩個階段。本文章是關於從19世紀末期和20世紀初期發展出來的運動，有關後現代主義的部份請參見相關條目。
目录 [显示]
[编辑]特征

理性
内向性，表现性
大众化
现代价值观
技巧上创新
反传统
迎向工業量產
[编辑]歷史

現代主義運動興起於19世紀末期，現代主義相信那些「傳統」形式的藝術、文學、社會組織和日常生活型態都已經過時，因此有必要將這些過時的東西掃除並且重新創造文化。現代主義鼓勵人們去重新檢視從商業活動到哲學等這些既存事物的每一個面向，找出在裡面有什麼東西是在「阻礙」進步，並且將那些東西替換成新的、更好的東西，來達到那些舊有東西原本希望達成的同樣目標。本質上，現代主義運動認為20世紀的嶄新現狀，都是具有永恆性及內在性的，因此大家必須調整他們的世界觀，接受這些新興而同時也是美好的事物。
[编辑]現代主義先驅
19世紀前半的歐洲發生了一連串的戰爭與革命，造成了一些思潮的形成，現在我們稱之為浪漫主義。浪漫主義重視個人主體經驗、崇尚「自然」的標準藝術主題、革命性與激進的表現方式、以及個人自由。不過到了19世紀中期，出現了一個這些思想的综合體，相信是那些「真實的」東西支配了主體經驗。這種思想可以從俾斯麥的現實政治和哲學理念「實證主義」中，以及後來被稱為「維多利亞時期」中的文化準則裡找到。
[编辑]現代主義的開始：1890年—1910年


典型的现代主义建筑：平屋顶，简单粉刷的外墙，水平条窗，没有多余的装饰
起初的现代主义可以说是一种对于传统的摒弃，转而尝试用一种基于现代的观念和技术，用一种崭新的视角去思考问题。因此，古斯塔夫斯自认为他是一个"现代的"作曲家，福楼拜曾经说过著名的"拥有完全现代的品味是至关重要的。"印象主义运动把摒除传统看作是最重要的变革之一，现在看起来，这其实就是一种现代主义运动。在文学上来说，象征主义者的变革极大地影响了现代主义的发展，最主要就是因为它对于感觉、感受的重视。在哲学方面，尼采和弗洛伊德等对于传统的毁坏为这个变革的更进一步提供了重要的支撑：从基本原理出发，放弃原有的定义和系统。这一波变革基本上来说停留在19世纪的标准规范里面，参与者经常认为自己是改革家而非革命家。
从十八世纪九十年代开始，随着改革的进一步推进，有一股思想开始认为应该把之前的标准规范完全放到一边去。变化应该更加彻底，而不仅仅是只是按照当代的技术去校订和修改过去的知识。与艺术上的这种变革相对应的有物理学上关于相对论的发展；内燃和工业化的不断结合；社会科学被应用在公共决策中。在二十世纪的前十五年中，一系列的作家、思想家和艺术家摈弃了传统的方法来进行文学、绘画、音乐等的创作，同样，相同的做法在其他的领域里也是随处可见。选择这种做法的人认为，如果实际事物的本身就具有可疑性的话，那么用来限制人们处理这些事物的条条框框也就失去了它的意义。所以在艺术上也一样，必须要有本质上的激进的改变。
[编辑]現代主義的全盛時期：1910年—1930年
[编辑]第二代現代主義：1930年—1945年
[编辑]二次大戰後的現代主義：1945年以後
[编辑]現代主義的目標
很多現代主義者認為，透過拒絕傳統，他們可以從根本上發現新的方法去創造藝術。
其他現代主義者，特別是那些從事設計的人，具有更實用主義的觀點。現代主義建築師和設計師相信新技術使得舊的建築風格已毫無用處。Le Corbusier認為建築的作用應該是「為居住而準備的機器」，就像汽車是旅行的機器。正如汽車取代了馬，現代主義設計師應該拒絕從古希臘和中世紀繼承下來的舊風格、舊結構。從機器審美出發，現代主義設計師普遍拒絕在設計中採取裝飾性的圖形，轉而強調使用的材料和純粹的幾何形式。比如位于紐約，由Ludwig Mies van der rohe設計的Seagram Building（1956-1958）就成為了現代主義建築的原型。現代主義房屋、家具設計也普遍強調簡單、形式上的簡潔和开放式空间的內部，同時減少混亂（absence of clutter）。現代主義顛覆了十九世紀公共和私人之間的關係：十九世紀，由於多種原因，公共建築向水平方向伸展，而私人建築強調垂直性——以便在有限土地上容納更多的私人空間。然而在二十世紀，公共建築通常垂直延伸，而私人建築反而向水平方向延伸了。當代主流建築仍然保留著現代主義設計的許多方面，儘管以前的許多成規已經讓位于更加隨興的裝飾、復古和空間的戲劇感。
這樣的實用主義在其他的藝術中並沒有這麼重要。文學和視覺藝術中，有些現代主義者挑戰觀眾的期待，以使他們的藝術更加鮮明，或迫使觀眾、讀者努力質疑他們的預想。現代主義的這個方面通常是對於十九世紀發展於歐美的消費文化的反應。制造商通過偏好和偏見進行銷售，而high modernists拒絕這樣的消費主義態度，以此瓦解常規的思維。藝術評論家Clement Greenberg在他的文章「Avant-Garde and Kitsch」中闡述了此理論。Greenberg將消費文化的產品稱為「劣俗品」（kitsch），因為他們的設計只是一位追求最大化的吸引力，因而放棄了需要技巧的特徵（difficult features）。對於Greeberg而言，現代主義是針對現代消費文化的商業流行音樂，好萊塢和廣告的反作用力。Greenberg將其與革命性的對資本主義的反對聯繫了起來。
一些現代主義者確實將自己視為某種革命文化—結合了政治革命的一部分。其他人不僅拒絕常規政治和藝術，更認為意識上的革命比政治結構上的更重要。許多現代主義者視自己為非政治的。事實上，也有觀點認為文學和藝術中的現代主義起到了排斥大眾的精英文化的作用。
[编辑]加泰隆尼亞的現代主義

西班牙的加泰罗尼亚地區的加泰隆尼亞現代主義 (Modernismo catalán / Catalan Modernisme) 起源於新藝術運動，但獨具特色，和當時在英國被稱為 “Modern style” 或 “Liberty”，在德國被稱為 “Jugendstyl”，在奧地利被稱為“Sezessionstyl”，在義大利被稱為 “Floreale” 或 “Liberty”，在法國被稱為 ”Modern Style" 或 “Art Nouveau” 的不太一樣，不能混為一談。
加泰隆尼亞自1714年於西班牙王位爭奪戰大敗後，自十五世紀以來享有的自治權被廢除，加泰罗尼亚语被禁止，大受屈辱，因為傳統藝術文化不准發展，只能發展工業，因而成為西班牙第一個工業化的地區，巴塞隆納成為西班牙第一個工業化的城市。到了十九世紀，在加泰隆尼亞地區，以巴塞隆納為中心，發展出新的資產階級，因工業而致富，因致富而資助加泰隆尼亞的藝術文化發展，而引發加泰隆尼亞的“文藝復興 (Renaixença)”。在加泰隆尼亞文藝復興時期，當地人積極吸收來自歐洲的藝術潮流，以強調加泰隆尼亞地區與西班牙的差別，加強它的民族主義，因此，現代主義在這一地區有著意想不到的擴展，又因融入了當地的傳統藝術和民族主義象徵，而獨具風格。
在建築師方面，加泰羅尼亞建築師們例如安東尼•高第，多明尼克（Domènech i Montaner），和普意居（Puig i Cadafalch）等帶頭領導這個藝術潮流在當地的發展。 多明尼克更扮演了很重要的“為加泰羅尼亞區現代主義建築定義”的角色，他在《文藝復興》（La Renaixença） 雜誌上發表、題為《尋找民族建築》（En busca d'una arquitectura nacional）的文章，提出一個『表現加泰羅尼亞民族主義的現代建築”方式。
現代主義派的人認為，“想像和創造力是藝術創作者的象徵”，和折衷主義派認為的“藝術是現實的客觀表示方式”理念不同，實際上，加泰隆尼亞的現代主義代表“新形式的創作自由，創作出以前不為接受的樣式形式，把藝術從它的學術局限拉出來。”
加泰隆尼亞的現代主義不只是表現在建築的裝飾上，而且因它的歷史背景，要強調加泰羅尼亞地區的民族主義，所以對維護和更新傳統的建築和裝飾技術也很有重視。因此，使用傳統的紅磚、馬賽克和彩色玻璃為建材，以泰羅尼亞中世紀輝煌時期的建築風格如哥德式和新哥德式建築為靈感，也因此開發出新的建築或建材技術，例如:使用新的建材如鋼鐵及新的製陶技術，設計出新的建築技巧如米拉之家的閣樓和陽台，加泰隆尼亞音樂廳等。
不論如何，加泰隆尼亞的現代主義是一個重視建築物的門面和內部裝飾的一個風格，所以裝飾藝術因加泰隆尼亞的現代主義而發展，又因對空虛的恐懼(Horror vacui) 把所有的表面都裝飾起來。但加泰隆尼亞的現代主義反對19世紀的工業建築裝飾，發展出『師法自然』的、以大自然為建築物形狀樣式、裝飾靈感的風格，建築師和他們的雕刻師在建築物的外部以鳥、蝴蝶、動物、葉子、植物和花為裝飾元素，連窗戶和陽台的鑄鐵欄杆或鑄鐵裝飾都有大自然的動植物樣式。
當時最有名的三個建築師是多明尼克，高第，和普意居，其中又以高第最特別。高第的作品風格是合乎加泰隆尼亞的現代主義風格，而且超越了現代主義的風格，以『師法自然』為例，其他的建築師以動植物來作建築物的形狀樣式、或為建築物的門面和內部裝飾，但高第除了以動植物來作建築物的形狀樣式、或為建築物的門面和內部裝飾，還以動植物的形狀來作它的建築結構的設計。
[编辑]西方世界之外的現代主義

[编辑]外部連結

加泰隆尼亞現代主義 (Modernismo catalán / Catalan Modernisme) - 由巴塞隆納的中文官方導遊王儷瑾 (維基百科帳戶 Nevah) 發表的文章
Minneapolis Institute of Arts - Modernist collection - A gallery of exhibits from modernist movements in the visual arts. Features a timeline, quotes, and links to publications for suggested reading.
An essay on Modernism by Christopher L. C. E. Witcombe, Professor of Art History at Sweet Briar College, Virginia.
An introduction to Modernism in Literature with a focus on poetry.
Literary definition of Modernism from the Guide to Literary Terms by Jack Lynch, Professor of English at Rutgers University.
Definition of Modernism from The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms
The Culture of Modernism by Göran Sonesson, Professor of Semiotics at Lund University, Sweden.
[编辑]參考

查尔斯•詹克斯（Charles Jencks）, 现代主义建筑运动（Modern Movements in Architecture） (1973年), ISBN 0140215344
Susi Gablik, Has Modernism Failed?
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