سامی اقوام سامی

اقوام سامی عبارتی است که امروزه عمدتاً برای اطلاق به عرب‌ها و اسرائیلیان (عبرانیها) به کار می‌رود. شناخته‌شده‌ترین زبان‌های سامی زنده نیز عربی؛ عبری و آشوری هستند. بیشتر مردم سوی غربی خاورمیانه از نژاد سامی بوده‌اند و زبان ویژه خود را داشته‌اند که امروزه بیشترشان یا نابود شده و یا در عرب‌ها حل شده‌اند و به زبان عربی سخن می‌گویند که از آن دسته می‌توان از آرامی‌ها، کلدانی‌ها، نبطی‌ها∗ یاد کرد.
از دیدگاه دین‌های ابراهیمی و بر پایه روایت تورات و اسطوره‌های سامی نسل کنونی آدمیان که پس از توفان نوح به جای مانده‌اند از پشت سه پسر نوح سام، حام و یافث هستند. این در حالی است که قرآن ادعای جهانی بودن برای طوفان نوح نکرده است.[۱] سامی‌ها کسانی هستند که خود را فرزندان سام پسر نوح می‌دانند. هر چیز وابسته به آنها مانند زبان‌های سامی، آیین‌های سامی و... سامی خوانده می‌شود.
زبان‌ها [ویرایش]

[نهفتن]
ن • ب • و
زبان‌های سامی امروزی
آرامی نو · اَمهاری · اینور · تیگره · تیگرینیایی · چَها · سُریانی · سیلته · سودو · عبری · عربی جنوبی · عربی · مالتی · مَندائی نو · هَراری ·
پانویس [ویرایش]

^ منبع این بند:
MOSCATI, SABATINO, The Semites in ancient history. An inquiry into the settlement of the Beduin and their political establishment. Cardiff: ۱۹۵۹، صص. ۱۶ تا ۲۱.
منابع [ویرایش]

↑ باستانشناسی و جغرافیای تاریخی قصص قرآن، دکتر عبدالکریم بی آزار شیرازی، صفحه ۴۰
این یک نوشتار خُرد پیرامون مردم‌شناسی است. با گسترش آن به ویکی‌پدیا کمک کنید.
در ویکی‌انبار پرونده‌هایی دربارهٔ سامی (قوم) موجود است.
رده: سامی

قس عربی

السامیون، کلمة اصطلحت لتشمل الشعوب الأساسیة التی هاجرت ابتداء من سنة 3500 ق.م. من الصحراء العربیة إلى ضفاف نهری دجلة والفرات حیث الحضارات المزدهرة. فالأکادیون الذین سکنوا سومر دعیوا بالسامیین، کذلک العرب (سکان الجزیرة العربیة) بالإضافة إلى الشعوب المعتنقة للیهودیة.[بحاجة لمصدر]
المیزة المشترکة لهذه الشعوب لم تکن عرقیة بقدر ما کانت خصائص لغویة متشابهة. کانت هذه اللغات غنیّة بالأصوات النابعة من أعماق الحنجرة ومنها الآرامیة والأمهریة والعربیة والعبریة والأکادیة[بحاجة لمصدر]. لکن حتى تقاربهم اللغوی لا یمکن اثباته بالدلیل العلمی القاطع لأنّ القبائل المترحّلة القدیمة لم تترک أیّ أثر مکتوب[بحاجة لمصدر].
محتویات [اعرض]
[عدل]التسمیة

[عدل]فی الیهودیة
بالاعتماد على التوراة، أعید نسب کل القبائل المعروفة إلى أولاد النبی نوح الثلاثة: سام، حام، ویافث. (שם بالعبریة وShem بالإنجلیزیة)، الابن البکر، اعتُبر فی أوروبا فی القرن الثامن عشر على أنّه مؤسس السامیین. حام، الابن الثانی، اعتُبر أبّ الحامیین بینما اعتبر یافث على أنه مصدر شعوب آسیا الوسطى. هذه القواعد فی التسمیة هی عشوائیة وتخلو من أی أساس منطقی، حسب ما یثبت المثل التالی: کنعان وصیدون، رمزان مرتبطان بفینیقیا; والفینیقیون (الکنعانیون) سامیون کذلک الأموریون، بینما معروف من العهد القدیم أنّ الکنعانیین والأموریین من أولاد حام![1]
[عدل]فی الإسلام
وإن أجمع المسلمون أن الطوفان عم جمیع البلاد، قال ابن کثیر فی البدایة والنهایة:
"أجمع أهل الأدیان الناقلون عن رسل الرحمن مع ما تواتر عند الناس فی سائر الأزمان على وقوع الطوفان وأنه عم جمیع البلاد ولم یبق الله أحدا من کفرة العباد استجابة لدعوة نبیه المؤید المعصوم وتنفیذا لما سبق فی القدر المحتوم."
توجد روایات ولکن الأصح منها هو:-
أن کل الناس الیوم من ذریة النبی نوح:
عن قتادة، فی قوله تعالى: "وَجَعَلْنَا ذُرِّیَّتَهُ هُمُ الْبَاقِینَ"، قال: فالناس کلهم من ذریة نوح.
عن ابن عباس فی قوله تعالى: "وَجَعَلْنَا ذُرِّیَّتَهُ هُمُ الْبَاقِینَ". یقول: لم یبق إلا ذریة نوح.
ومع هذا فالروایات التی تصنف الناس إلى سامیین وحامیین ویافثیین لم تصل درجة الصحة
ولکن فی الإسلام تقول السنة أن العرب هم سامیون وذلک جاء فی حدیث رسول الله نبی الإسلام:"سَامٌ أَبُو الْعَرَبِ ، وَحَامٌ أَبُو الْحَبَشِ ، وَیَافِثُ أَبُو الرُّومِ"[2].
[عدل]مصطلح معاداة السامیة

معاداة السامیة لفظ کان یقصد به عند نشأته معاداة الیهود. استعمل هذا المصطلح للمرة الأولى سنة 1860 المفکر النمساوی الیهودی Moritz Steinschneider. بقی هذا المصطلح غیر متداول حتى سنة 1873 حیث استعمله الصحفی الألمانی Wilhelm Marr فی کتیب عنوانه "انتصار الیهودیة على الألمانیة" احتجاجًا على تنامی قوّة الیهود فی الغرب واصفًا إیاهم بأشخاص بلا مبدأ (أو أصل). فی سنة 1879م أسس رابطة المعادین للسامیة. بالرغم من أنّ هذا المصطلح متناقض مع تعریف السامیین إلا أنه ما زال مستعملاً للدلالة على معاداة الیهود. یتمسّک معظم الیهود بهذه التسمیة لإظهار کل اختلاف معهم على أن أساسه عنصری أو عرقی وهو ادعاء لا صحة له فی صراع العرب مع إسرائیل مثلاً. لأن العرب سامیون أیضاً، بل غالبا هم أکثر سامیة من الیهود حیث إنهم لم یرحلوا إلى أوروبا ولم تختلط دمائهم مع أقوام غیر سامیة.
[عدل]اللغات

تحدث السامیون بعدة لغات منها: العربیة والعبریة والآرامیة والامهریة والأکادیة.
مقال تفصیلی :لغة سامیة
[عدل]انظر أیضا

حامیون
معاداة السامیة
لغة سامیة
[عدل]المصادر

^ کتاب The Phoenicians, the Purple Empire of the Ancient World للکاتب الألمانی Gerhard Herm
^ موسوعة الحدیث
بوابة میثولوجیا
تصنیفات: تحدیدات تاریخیة للأعراقسامیونمجموعات عرقیةأساطیر دینیة

قس انگلیسی

In linguistics and ethnology, Semitic (from the Biblical "Shem", Hebrew: שם‎, translated as "name", Arabic: سامیّ‎) was first used to refer to a language family of largely Middle Eastern origin, now called the Semitic languages. This family includes the ancient and modern forms of Akkadian, Aramaic, Hebrew, Arabic, Ge'ez, Maltese, Canaanite/Phoenician, Amorite, Eblaite, Ugaritic, Sutean, Chaldean, Mandaic, Ahlamu, Amharic, Tigre and Tigrinya among others.
As language studies are interwoven with cultural studies, the term also came to describe the extended cultures and ethnicities, as well as the history of these varied peoples as associated by close geographic and linguistic distribution.
Contents [show]
Origin

The term Semite means a member of any of various ancient and modern Semitic-speaking peoples originating in southwestern Asia, including; Akkadians (Assyrians and Babylonians), Eblaites, Ugarites, Canaanites, Phoenicians (including Carthaginians), Hebrews (Israelites, Judeans and Samaritans), Ahlamu, Arameans, Chaldeans, Amorites, Moabites, Edomites, Hyksos, Arabs, Nabateans, Maganites, Shebans, Sutu, Ubarites, Dilmunites, Bahranis, Maltese, Mandaeans, Sabians, Syriacs, Mhallami, Amalekites and Ethiopian Semites. It was proposed at first to refer to the languages related to Hebrew by Ludwig Schlözer, in Eichhorn's "Repertorium", vol. VIII (Leipzig, 1781), p. 161. Through Eichhorn the name then came into general usage (cf. his "Einleitung in das Alte Testament" (Leipzig, 1787), I, p. 45). In his "Geschichte der neuen Sprachenkunde", pt. I (Göttingen, 1807) it had already become a fixed technical term.[6]
The word "Semitic" is an adjective derived from Shem, one of the three sons of Noah in the Bible (Genesis 5.32, 6.10, 10.21), or more precisely from the Greek derivative of that name, namely Σημ (Sēm); the noun form referring to a person is Semite.
The term "anti-Semitic" (or "anti-Semite"), owing to the circumstances of its coining, and as established by longstanding usage, refers exclusively to hostility or discrimination directed at Jews.[7] (This remains true, even though the word "Semite" and most uses of the word "Semitic" do not make specific reference to Jews, but speak much more broadly to any people whose native tongue is, or was historically, a member of the associated language family.[8][9]) "Anti-Semitic" was coined in 1879 by German journalist Wilhelm Marr in a pamphlet called Der Weg zum Siege des Germanenthums über das Judenthum ("The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism").[citation needed] Using ideas of race and nationalism, Marr argued that Jews had become the first major power in the West. He accused them of being liberals, a people without roots who had Judaized Germans beyond salvation. In 1879 Marr founded the "League for Anti-Semitism".[10]
The concept of "Semitic" peoples is derived from Biblical accounts of the origins of the cultures known to the ancient Hebrews. Those closest to them in culture and language were generally deemed to be descended from their forefather Shem. Enemies were often said to be descendants of his cursed nephew, Canaan. In Genesis 10:21-31, Shem is described as the father of Aram, Ashur, and Arpachshad: the Biblical ancestors of the Arabs, Aramaeans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Chaldeans, Sabaeans, and Hebrews, etc., all of whose languages are closely related; the language family containing them was therefore named "Semitic" by linguists. However, the Canaanites, Eblaites, Ugarites and Amorites also spoke languages belonging to this family, and are therefore also termed Semitic in linguistics, despite being described in Genesis as sons of Ham (See Sons of Noah). Shem is also described in Genesis as the father of Elam and Lud, however the Elamites spoke a language isolate and Lydians spoke an Indo-European language.
The hypothetical Proto-Semitic language, ancestral to historical Semitic languages in the Middle East, is thought to have been originally from either the Arabian Peninsula (particularly around Yemen), the Levant, Mesopotamia or even the Ethiopian Highlands. But its region of origin is still much debated and uncertain with, for example, a recent bayesian analysis identifying an origin for Semitic languages in the Levant around 5,750 BP with a later single introduction from what is now southern Arabia into north Africa around 2,800 BP.[11] The Semitic language family is also considered a component of the larger Afroasiatic macro-family of languages. Identification of the hypothetical proto-Semitic region of origin is therefore dependent on the larger geographic distributions of the other language families within Afroasiatic.
Semitic speaking peoples



Approximate distribution of Semitic languages around the 1st century AD
The following is a list of ancient and modern Semitic speaking peoples.
Mandaeans
Akkadians (Assyrians/Babylonians) — migrated into Mesopotamia in the 4th millennium BC and amalgamate with non-Semitic Mesopotamian (Sumerian) populations into the Assyrians and Babylonians of the Late Bronze Age.[12][13] The remnants of these people became the modern Assyrian Christians.
Eblaites — 23rd century BC
Chaldeans — appeared in southern Mesopotamia circa 1000 BC
Aramaeans — 16th to 8th century BC[14] / Akhlames (Ahlamu) 14th century BC[15] The modern Syriac Christian population of Syria are largely of Aramean stock.
Mhallami
Ugarites, 14th to 12th centuries BC
Suteans - 14th Century BC
Canaanite language speaking nations of the early Iron Age:
Amorites — 20th century BC
Ammonites
Edomites
Amalekites
Hebrews/Israelites — founded the nation of Israel which later split into the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The remnants of these people became the Jews and the Samaritans.
Moabites
Phoenicians — founded Mediterranean colonies including Carthage. The remnants of these people became the modern Maronites.
Old South Arabian speaking peoples
Sabaeans of Yemen — 9th to 1st c. BC
Shebans
Ubarites
Maganites
Ethio-Semitic speaking peoples
Aksumites — 4th c. BC to 7th c. AD
Arabs, Old North Arabian speaking Bedouins
Gindibu's Arabs 9th c. BC
Qadar tribe 7th century BC
Lihyanites — 6th to 1st c. BC
Thamud people — 2nd to 5th c. AD
Ghassanids — 3rd to 7th c. AD
Nabataeans — Mix of Aramaiac and Arabic speakers.
Maltese
Semitic speaking states and nations

Below is a list of some important Semitic speaking states and nations extant at different points prior to the 7th century AD.
Mesopotamia
Isin
Larsa
Akshak
Akkad
Assyria
Babylonia
Ekallatum
Mari
Eshnunna
Chaldea
Adiabene
Osroene
Hatra
Levant
Ebla
Ugar
Amorite States
Aram Damascus
Aram Rehob
Aram-Sôvah
Hamath
Aram-Ma’akah
Palmyra
Canaan
Arvad
Sidon
Tyre
Israel
Judah
Samarra
Byblos
Moab
Edom
Ammon
Petra
Sutea
Amalek
Nabatea
Arabia
Magan
Dilmun
Sheba
Ubar[disambiguation needed]
Himyarite Kingdom
ʿĀd
Thamud
Qataban
Kingdom of Awsan
North Africa/Mediterranean
Mdina (Malta)
Carthage
North East Africa[disambiguation needed]
Aksum
Ethiopia
Languages

Main article: Semitic languages


The Harvard Semitic Museum at Harvard University
The modern linguistic meaning of "Semitic" is therefore derived from (though not identical to) Biblical usage. In a linguistic context the Semitic languages are a subgroup of the larger Afroasiatic language family (according to Joseph Greenberg's widely accepted classification) and include, among others: Akkadian, the ancient language of Babylon and Assyria; Amorite, Amharic, the official language of Ethiopia; Tigrinya, a language spoken in Eritrea and in northern Ethiopia; Arabic; Aramaic, still spoken in Iraq, Iran, Syria, Turkey and Armenia by Assyrian-Chaldean Christians and Mandaeans; Canaanite; Ge'ez, the ancient language of the Eritrean and Ethiopian Orthodox scriptures which originated in Yemen; Hebrew; Maltese; Phoenician or Punic; Syriac (a form of Aramaic); and South Arabian, the ancient language of Sheba/Saba, which today includes Mehri, spoken by only tiny minorities on the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula.
Wildly successful as second languages far beyond their numbers of contemporary first-language speakers, a few Semitic languages today are the base of the sacred literature of some of the world's great religions, including Islam (Arabic), Judaism (Hebrew and Aramaic), and Syriac and Ethiopian Christianity (Aramaic/Syriac and Ge'ez). Millions learn these as a second language (or an archaic version of their modern tongues): many Muslims learn to read and recite Classical Arabic, the language of the Qur'an, and many Jews all over the world outside of Israel with other first languages speak and study Hebrew, the language of the Torah, Midrash, and other Jewish scriptures. Ethnic Assyrian followers of The Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church, Ancient Church of the East and some Syriac Orthodox Christians, both speak Mesopotamian eastern Aramaic and use it also as a liturgical tongue. The language is also used liturgically by the primarily Arabic speaking followers of the Maronite, Syriac Catholic Church and some Melkite Christians. Mandaic another dialect of Aramaic is both spoken and used as a liturgical language by followers of the Mandaean faith.
It should be noted that Berber, Egyptian (including Coptic), Hausa, Somali, and many other related languages within the wider area of Northern Africa and the Middle East do not belong to the specific Semitic group, but are related the larger Afroasiatic language family of which the Semitic languages are also a subgroup.[16]
Other ancient Near Eastern languages fall under non Semitic groupings; Sumerian, Elamite, Hurrian, Mannean, Gutian and Urartian were language isolates, meaning they were stand alone tongues, not related to any other language group, living or dead. Hittite, Phrygian, Lydian, Mitanni, Median, Philistine language, Cimmerian, Scythian, ancient Armenian, ancient Persian and ancient Greek were Indo-European languages. Nubian was a Nilotic language. Modern languages of the region that are non Semitic include; Azerbaijani, Kurdish, Shabak, Farsi/Persian, Gilaki, Turkish, Gagauz, modern Armenian, Georgian, Circassian, Chechen and Roma.
For a complete list of Semitic languages arranged by subfamily, see list from SIL's Ethnologue.
Geography

Semitic peoples and their languages, in both modern and ancient historic times, have covered a broad area bridging North Africa, Western Asia, Asia Minor and the Arabian Peninsula. The earliest historic (written) evidences of them are found in the Fertile Crescent (Mesopotamia), an area encompassing the Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian civilizations along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (modern Iraq), extending northwest into southern Asia Minor (modern Turkey) and the Levant (modern Syria and Lebanon) along the eastern Mediterranean. Early traces of Semitic speakers are found, too, in South Arabian inscriptions in Yemen, Eritrea, Northern Ethiopia, and after this in Carthage (modern Tunisia) and later still, in Roman times, in Nabataean inscriptions from Petra (modern Jordan) south into Arabia.
Later historical Semitic languages also spread into North Africa in two widely separated periods. The first expansion occurred with the ancient Phoenicians from around the 9th century BC, along the southern Mediterranean Sea all the way to the Atlantic Ocean (Phoenician colonies which included ancient Rome's nemesis Carthage). The second, a millennium later, was the expansion of the Muslim armies and Arabic in the 7th-8th centuries AD, which, at their height, controlled the Iberian Peninsula (until 1492) and Sicily. Arab Muslim expansion is also responsible for modern Arabic's presence from Mauritania, on the Atlantic coast of West Africa, to the Red Sea in the northeastern corner of Africa, and its reach south along the Nile River as far as the northern half of Sudan, where, as the national language, non-Arab Sudanese even farther south must learn it.
Modern Hebrew was reintroduced in the 20th century, and together with Arabic, is a national language in Israel. Western Aramaic dialects remain spoken in Malula near Damascus. Eastern Mesopotamian Neo-Aramaic is spoken along the northern border of Syria and throughout Iraq, Southeast-Turkey (Turabdin), in far northwestern Iran and in Armenia, Georgia and southern Russia. These speakers are predominantly ethnic Assyrians (also known as Chaldo-Assyrians). Mandaean Aramaic is still spoken in parts of southern and northern Iraq. Semitic languages and are also found in the Horn of Africa, especially Eritrea and Ethiopia. Tigrinya, a North Ethiopic dialect, has around six million speakers in Eritrea and Tigray. In Eritrea, Tigre is the language of around 800,000 Muslims. Amharic is the national language of Ethiopia and is spoken by at least 10 million Ethiopian Orthodox Christians. Semitic languages today are also spoken in Malta (where an Italian-influenced language derived from Siculo-Arabic is spoken) and on the island of Socotra in the Indian Ocean between Yemen and Somalia, where a dying vestige of South Arabian is spoken in the form of Soqotri. The Maltese language is the only officially recognized Semitic language of the European Union.
Religion

In a religious context, the term 'Semitic' can refer to the religions associated with the speakers of these languages: thus Judaism, Christianity and Islam are often described as "Semitic religions" (irrespective of language family spoken by their adherents). Manicheanism and the Mandaean religion also fall within this category.
The term Abrahamic religions is more commonly used today. A truly comprehensive account of "Semitic" religions would include the Ancient Semitic religions (such as Mesopotamian religion and Canaanite Religion) that flourished in the Middle East long before the Abrahamic religions.
Ethnicity and race

Further information: Caucasian race, Hamitic race, and Scientific racism


A stylised T and O map, depicting Asia as the home of the descendents of Shem (Sem). Africa is ascribed to Ham and Europe to Japheth
In Medieval Europe, all Asian peoples were thought of as descendants of Shem. By the nineteenth century, the term Semitic was confined to the ethnic groups who have historically spoken Semitic languages. These peoples were often considered to be a distinct race. However, some anti-Semitic racial theorists of the time argued that the Semitic peoples arose from the blurring of distinctions between previously separate races. This supposed process was referred to as Semiticization by the race-theorist Arthur de Gobineau. The notion that Semitic identity was a product of racial "confusion" was later taken up by the Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg.[citation needed]
In contrast, some recent genetic studies found that analysis of the DNA of Semitic-speaking peoples suggests that they have some common ancestry. Though no significant common mitochondrial results have been yielded, Y-chromosomal links between Semitic-speaking Near-Eastern peoples like Arabs, Hebrews and Assyrians have proved fruitful, despite differences contributed from other groups (see Y-chromosomal Aaron). The studies attribute this correlation to a common Near Eastern origin, since Semitic-speaking Near Easterners from the Fertile Crescent (including Jews) were found to be more closely related to non-Semitic speaking Near Easterners (such as Iranians, Anatolians, and Caucasians) than to other Semitic-speakers (such as Gulf Arabs, Ethiopian Semites, and North African Arabs).[17][18]
Semiticization is a concept found in the writings of some racial theorists in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.[citation needed] The term was first used by Arthur de Gobineau to label the blurring of racial distinctions that, in his view, had occurred in the Middle-East. Gobineau had an essentialist model of race according to which there were three distinct racial groups: "black", "white" and "yellow" peoples, though he had no clear account of how this division arose. When these races mixed this caused "degeneration". Since the point at which these three supposed races met was in the middle-east, Gobineau argued that the process of mixing and diluting races occurred there, and that Semitic peoples embodied this "confused" racial identity.
This concept suited the interests of antisemites, since it provided a theoretical model to rationalise racialised antisemitism. Variations of the theory are to be found in the writings of many antisemites in the late nineteenth century. The Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg developed a variant of the theory in his writings, arguing that Jewish people were not a "real" race. According to Rosenberg, their evolution came about from the mixing of pre-existing races rather than from natural selection. The theory of Semiticization was typically associated with other longstanding racist fears about the dilution of racial difference through miscegenation, manifested in negative images of mulattos and other mixed groups.
See also

Hamitic
Japhetic
Proto-Semitic
Antisemitism
Afroasiatic languages
References


This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2008)
^ Margaret Kleffner Nydell Understanding Arabs: a guide for modern times, Intercultural Press, 2006, ISBN 1931930252
^ Compound from the Ethiopian Semitic languages speakers and Central Cushitic languages speakers
^ SIL Ethnologue estimate for the "ethnic population" associated with Assyrian Neo-Aramaic. [1]
^ Iraqi minority group needs U.S. attention, Kai Thaler,Yale Daily News, March 9, 2007.
^ Tricia McDermott (2009-02-11). "The Real Samaritans". CBS News. Retrieved 2012-03-18.
^ "Semites". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913., Volume XIII
^ Anti-Semitism. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate® Dictionary, Eleventh Edition. Online version: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anti-semitism.
^ Semite. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate® Dictionary, Eleventh Edition. Online version: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/semite.
^ Semitic. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate® Dictionary, Eleventh Edition. Online version: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/semitic.
^ Moshe Zimmermann, Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism, Oxford University Press, USA, 1987
^ Kitchen A, Ehret C, Assefa S, Mulligan CJ. (2009). Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of Semitic languages identifies an Early Bronze Age origin of Semitic in the Near East. Proc Biol Sci. 276(1668):2703-10. doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.0408 PMID 19403539 supplementary material.
^ Mesopotamian religion - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
^ Akkadian language - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
^ Aramaean - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
^ Akhlame - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
^ http://www.bookrags.com/tandf/afro-asiatic-tf/ Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics entry on Afro-Asiatic
^ Almut Nebel, Dvora Filon, Bernd Brinkmann, Partha P. Majumder, Marina Faerman, and Ariella Oppenheim, The Y Chromosome Pool of Jews as Part of the Genetic Landscape of the Middle East, American Journal of Human Genetics (2001) 69(5): 1095–1112 (online here)
^ Farida Alshamali, Luísa Pereira, Bruce Budowle, Estella S. Poloni, Mathias Currat, Local Population Structure in Arabian Peninsula Revealed by Y-STR Diversity, Hum Hered (2009) 68:45-54 (online here)
External links

Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article Semites.
Semitic genetics
Semitic language family tree included under "Afro-Asiatic" in SIL's Ethnologue.
The south Arabian origin of ancient Arabs
The Edomite Hyksos connection
The perished Arabs
The Midianites of the north
Ancient Semitic peoples (video)
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Semitic topics
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Descendants of Noah in Genesis 10
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Categories: Judeo-Islamic topicsHistorical definitions of raceSemitic peoplesShem