اجازه ویرایش برای همه اعضا

گشتالت

نویسه گردانی: GŠTALT
گشتالت (به آلمانی: Gestalt) نام یک مکتب در روانشناسی و نام گروهی کوچک از روانشناسان آلمانی پیرو این مکتب در قرن بیستم است که نظریات مکس ورتایمر را مبنای کار خود درزمینه بررسی یادگیری قرار دادند.

بنیانگذاران این نهضت مکس ورتایمر (۱۹۴۳-۱۸۸۰) و دو همکار دیگرش به نام‌های ولفگانگ کهلر (۱۹۶۷-۱۸۸۷) و کورت کافکا (۱۹۴۱-۱۸۸۶) بودند و احتمالا این نهضت پس از انتشار مقاله مکس ورتایمر درباره حرکت آشکار در ۱۹۱۲ شکل گرفت.

نظریه گشتالت [ویرایش]

گشتالت در آلمانی به معنای «انگاره» (configuration) یا شکل (form) است. روانشناسان گشتالت معتقد بودند که گرچه تجربه‌های روانشناختی از عناصر حسی ناشی می‌شوند، اما باخود این عناصر تفاوت دارند. روانشناسان گشتالت معتقد بودند که یک ارگانیزم چیزی به تجربه می‌افزاید که در داده‌های حسی وجود نداردو آنها آن چیز را سازمان (organization) نامیدند و همانطورکه بیان شد گشتالت در آلمانی به معنی سازمان است. طبق نظریه گشتالت ما دنیا را در کل‌های معنی‌دار تجربه می‌کنیم و محرک‌های جداگانه را نمی‌بینیم و کلا هرآنچه می‌بینیم محرک‌های ترکیب یافته در سازمان‌ها(گشتالت‌ها)یی است که برای ما معنی دارند.

طبق این نظریه کل چیزی فراتر از مجموع اجزای آن است. برای مثال مابا گوش فرا دادن به نت‌های مجزای یک ارکستر سمفونی قادر به درک تجربه گوش دادن به خود آن نیستیم ودر حقیقت موسیقی حاصل از ارکستر چیزی فراتر از مجموع نت‌های مختلفی است که توسط نوازندگان مختلف اجرا می‌شود. آهنگ دارای یک کیفیت منحصر به فرد ترکیبی است که بامجموع قسمت‌های آن متفاوت است.

چگونگی شکل‌گیری نظریه گشتالت [ویرایش]

مکس ورتایمر در راه تعطیلات هنگام مسافرت با قطار به شهر رایلند به یک اندیشه تازه دست یافت. او دریافت که اگر دو نور متفاوت با نرخ معینی خاموش و روشن شوند، در بیننده این تصور را ایجاد می‌نمایند که این تنها یک نور است که به عقب و جلو می‌رود(درست همانند آنچه که در کارتون‌های انیمیشن اتفاق می‌افتد و ما بادیدن پشت سرهم چند نقاشی تصور می‌کنیم که یک موجودیت واحد در حال تحرک را می‌بینیم) . وی پس از این تجربه قطار را ترک نمود و یک حرکت‌نما (stroboscope) خریداری نمود و در اتاقی که برای اقامت کرایه کرده بود با آن تعداد زیادی آزمایش انجام داد. او دریافت که در صورتی که چشم محرک را به طریق معینی ببیند در شخص تصور حرکت ایجاد می‌شود و این را پدیده فای نامید. این کشف تاثیری عمیق برتاریخ روانشناسی به جای نهاد.

اهمیت پدیده فای در این است که این پدیده با عناصری که آن را به وجود می‌آورند فرق دارد. احساس حرکت توسط بررسی هر یک از دو نوری که خاموش یا روشن می‌شوند قابل تبیین نخواهد بود. تجربه حرکت به نحوی ازترکیب عناصر به دست می‌آید. .



منابع [ویرایش]

هرگنهان، السون. نظریه‌های یادگیری. ترجمهٔ علی اکبر سیف. ویرایش ششم. چاپ ششم. تهران: نشر دوران، ۱۳۸۲. 310-278.
[نهفتن]
ن • ب • و
روان‌شناسی
درگاه • تاریخ روان‌شناسی • روان‌شناسان
پژوهشی
زیستی • شناختی • تطبیقی • رشد • تکاملی • آزمایشی • ریاضیاتی • عصب‌شناختی • شخصیتی • فیزیولوژیکی • مثبت‌گرا • آسیب‌شناختی • روان‌فیزیک • اجتماعی • تراشخصیتی



کاربردی
ارزیابی • بالینی • مشاوره‌ای • آموزشی • جنایی • سلامت • صنعتی/سازمانی • قانونی • آموزشگاهی • ورزش

گرایش‌ها
رفتارگرایی • شناخت‌گرایی • وجودی • خانواده‌درمانی • هیأت‌نگری • انسان‌گرایانه • روان‌کاوی • تحلیلی • روان‌پویشی • تراشخصیتی

متفرقه
موضوعات • رشته‌ها • داروها • اختلالات عصبی • نشریه‌ها • مکتب‌ها • فراروان‌شناسی

رده‌های صفحه: روان‌شناسی شناختی طراحی گرافیک روان‌شناسی ادراک
از ویکی پدیا
قس
علم النفس الغشتلتی یتأسس على نظریة الغَشتَلت (من الألمانیة Gestalt "صورة؛ شکل" وتلفظ ‏‎[ɡəˈʃtalt]‎‏) التی وضعتها مدرسة برلین تشکل نظریة حول العقل والدماغ تفترض أن المبدأ العملی للدماغ کلانی، متوازی ومتماثل مع میل للتنظیم الذاتی أو أن مجموع کل الأجزاء أقل من أداء الکل. المثال الغشتالتی الأکثر کلاسیکیة هو فقاعة الصابون التی لا یمکن لشکلها الکروی (أو ما یشکل غیشتالتها) أن یعرف عن طریق قالب صلب أو أدوات جاهزة أو حتى عن طریق معادلة ریاضیاتیة، لکنها مع ذلک تنبثق تلقائیا عن طریق الفعل المتوازی للتوتر السطحی على کل نقاط السطح فی وقت واحد. بهذه النظرة فهی تعاکس وتخالف المبدأ "الذری" للعملیات والإجراءات ضمن الحاسوب الرقمی، حیث کل عملیة حسابیة یتم تقسیمها إلى متتالیة من الخطوات البسیطة، کل واحدة یتم حسابها بشکل مستقل عن المسألة الکلیة ککل.
[عدل]الغشتلت

الغشتلت دراسة الإدراک والسلوک من مدرسة علم النفس، والمعروف أیضا باسم "علم النفس الشکلی"، التی تعنى فی المقام الأول دراسة التصور وقوانینه. وفقا لعلماء النفس الغشتلت بمعنى "التکوین"، الصور تُدرک بطریقة إجمالیة وأکثر تعقیدا من مجموع التشکیلات الجزئیة: على سبیل المثال، إضافة شکل صهوة فی منظر عام للمدینة یُفهم وکأنه کاتدرائیة.
[عدل]تأثیر الغشتلت

تأثیر الغشتلت ویشیر إلى قدرة مشکلة للشکل موجودة ضمن حواسنا، عملیا بالنسبة للتمییز البصری للأشکال والأشخاص وجمیع الأشکال بدلا من رؤیة مجرد خطوط بسیطة ومنحنیات. نظریات الغشتلت للإدراک البصری خاصة قانون برغننتس (Prägnanz وتلفظ ‏‎[pʀɛˈɡnants]‎‏) تم تجاهله وتهمیشه بشکل کبیر بعد تقدم العلوم العصبیة الحاسوبیة.
[أظهر] ع • ن • تنظریات التعلم والتعلیم
بوابة تربیة وتعلیم
هذه بذرة مقالة عن التعلیم تحتاج للنمو والتحسین، فساهم فی إثرائها بالمشارکة فی تحریرها.
تصنیفات: إحساس مدارس علم نفس تصمیم الجرافیک علم النفس
قس
Als Gestaltpsychologie wird eine Richtung innerhalb der Psychologie bezeichnet, die die menschliche Wahrnehmung als Fähigkeit beschreibt, Strukturen und Ordnungsprinzipien in Sinneseindrücken auszumachen. Das Wort „Gestaltpsychologie“ kann nur bedingt als klar definierbarer wissenschaftlicher Begriff gelten; es ist zum Teil ein durch seinen Gebrauch organisch gewachsener Name für eine Anzahl ähnlicher Auffassungen. Die Gestaltpsychologien unterschiedlicher Richtung leiten sich jedoch aus einer einzigen Arbeit aus dem Jahre 1890 her, in der der Philosoph Christian von Ehrenfels seine Erkenntnis berichtete, die Wahrnehmung enthalte Qualitäten, die sich nicht aus der Anordnung einfacher Sinnesqualitäten ergeben. So sei die Melodie eine solche Gestaltqualität, denn die Töne als Elemente der Melodie könnten durch ganz andere Töne ersetzt werden, und es wäre dennoch dieselbe Melodie, wenn nur die Anordnungsbeziehung zwischen den Tönen erhalten bliebe.
Inhaltsverzeichnis [Verbergen]
1 Klassische Gestaltpsychologie
1.1 Berliner Schule der Gestaltpsychologie (Gestalttheorie)
1.2 Gestaltgesetze
1.3 Leipziger Schule der Gestaltpsychologie (Genetische Ganzheitspsychologie)
1.4 Würzburger Schule der Gestaltpsychologie
1.5 Grazer oder Österreichische Schule der Gestaltpsychologie
1.6 Schweizer Psychologen und die Gestaltpsychologie
2 Siehe auch
3 Literatur
4 Weblinks
5 Einzelnachweise
Klassische Gestaltpsychologie [Bearbeiten]

Berliner Schule der Gestaltpsychologie (Gestalttheorie) [Bearbeiten]
Aufgrund der Beobachtungen v. Ehrenfels' entstand zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts die "Gestaltpsychologie" als eine neue psychologische Richtung. Sie wurde zuerst im deutschsprachigen, dann auch im internationalen Raum einflussreich. Als ihre Begründer und Hauptexponenten gelten drei Studenten von Carl Stumpf: Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler und Kurt Koffka. In weiterem Sinne kann auch Kurt Lewin dieser Gruppe zugerechnet werden. Diese "Berliner Schule der Gestaltpsychologie" nannte sich auch "Gestalttheorie" und erweiterte ihren Gegenstand über die Wahrnehmung hinaus. Sie ist vor allem ihrer umfangreichen Experimentalforschung auf dem Gebiet der Wahrnehmung wegen bekannt und berühmt geworden und wird noch Anfang des 21. Jahrhunderts vertreten. Es werden drei Arten von Gestaltqualitäten des Wahrnehmungserlebens unterschieden (Metzger 1954, S. 62-65), ohne innerhalb dieser Arten eine Systematik anzugeben:
Struktur, (Gefüge, Tektonik) wie gerade, rund, symmetrisch, geschlossen, spitz, wellig;
Ganzbeschaffenheit wie durchsichtig, leuchtend, rau, gelb;
"Wesen" wie Charakter, Habitus, Gefühlswert.
In der älteren Gestaltpsychologie vom Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts wird "Gestaltgesetz" synonym mit "Gestaltfaktor", "Faktor", "Gesetz" oder auch mit "Gruppierungsgesetz" verwendet. Ein Gestaltgesetz bezeichnet die Art des Zusammenschlusses von erlebten Teilen zu einer erlebten Ganzheit, oft neben einer Gruppe von einzelnen Gegebenheiten. "Der Zusammenschluss erfolgt derart, dass die entstehenden Ganzen in irgendeiner Weise vor anderen denkbaren Einteilungen gestaltlich ausgezeichnet sind", und zwar u. a. so, "dass möglichst einfache, einheitliche, ...geschlossene, ..symmetrische, ...gleichartige Ganzgebilde entstehen" (Wolfgang Metzger 1954, S. 108 f). Für diese und einige andere Arten des Zusammenschlusses wurden viele anschauliche Beispiele zusammengetragen, die den Betrachter unmittelbar überzeugen. Bestimmte Fakten wurden klassifiziert, so dass man von einer deskriptiven Theorie sprechen kann; eine erklärende Theorie für sie wurde jedoch nicht entwickelt.


Die Kanten des Würfels sind imaginär; sie werden von unserem Gehirn nach dem Gesetz der guten Fortsetzung erzeugt
Gestaltgesetze [Bearbeiten]
Gesetz der Prägnanz
Es werden bevorzugt Gestalten wahrgenommen, die sich von anderen durch ein bestimmtes Merkmal abheben (Prägnanztendenz). Jede Figur wird so wahrgenommen, dass sie in einer möglichst einfachen Struktur resultiert (= „Gute Gestalt“).
Gesetz der Nähe
Elemente mit geringen Abständen zueinander werden als zusammengehörig wahrgenommen.
Gesetz der Ähnlichkeit
Einander ähnliche Elemente werden eher als zusammengehörig erlebt als einander unähnliche.
Gesetz der Kontinuität
Reize, die eine Fortsetzung vorangehender Reize zu sein scheinen, werden als zusammengehörig angesehen.
Gesetz der Geschlossenheit
Linien, die eine Fläche umschließen, werden unter sonst gleichen Umständen leichter als eine Einheit aufgefasst als diejenigen, die sich nicht zusammenschließen (D. Katz, Gestaltpsychologie, 1969).
Gesetz der gemeinsamen Bewegung
Zwei oder mehrere sich gleichzeitig in eine Richtung bewegende Elemente werden als eine Einheit oder Gestalt wahrgenommen.
Gesetz der fortgesetzt durchgehenden Linie
Linien werden immer so gesehen, als folgten sie dem einfachsten Weg. Kreuzen sich zwei Linien, so gehen wir nicht davon aus, dass der Verlauf der Linien an dieser Stelle einen Knick macht, sondern wir sehen zwei gerade durchgehende Linien.
Zusätzlich zu diesen von Wertheimer formulierten Gesetzen fand Stephen Palmer in den 1990er Jahren drei weitere Gestaltgesetze.[1]
Gesetz der gemeinsamen Region
Elemente in abgegrenzten Gebieten werden als zusammengehörig empfunden.
Gesetz der Gleichzeitigkeit
Elemente, die sich gleichzeitig verändern, werden als zusammengehörig empfunden.
Gesetz der verbundenen Elemente
Verbundene Elemente werden als ein Objekt empfunden.
Leipziger Schule der Gestaltpsychologie (Genetische Ganzheitspsychologie) [Bearbeiten]
Der Philosoph Felix Krueger und der Psychologe Friedrich Sander gründeten die sogenannte „Zweite Leipziger Schule“ der Gestaltpsychologie. Zur Besonderheit dieser Schule zählt der intensive Einbezug der menschlichen Bewegung in das Forschungsvorgehen unter Leitung von Otto Klemm. Während die Berliner Schule die Auffassung der Erlebensimmanenz vertrat, nach der Erlebnisse aus Erlebnissen hervorgehen, waren die Leipziger der Meinung, Erlebnisse seien durch erlebensjenseitige Gegebenheiten bedingt. Sie setzten einen Bereich transphänomenalen seelischen Seins an, den sie "Struktur" nannten. Konkretere Ausführungen dieser Annahme gab es nicht; bekannt sind die allgemeinen Ausführungen zum "Problem des seelischen Seins" von Albert Wellek. Dabei ist es besonders problematisch, dass Sander die von ihm postulierten Gestaltgesetze in einem ideologisch überfrachteten Zusammenhang zur Propagierung nazistischer Weltanschauung nutzte. Die von ihm postulierte Tendenz zur "guten Gestalt" war nach seinen Schriften nicht nur eine universelle Tendenz, "gestaltfremdes" aus der persönlichen Wahrnehmung zu eliminieren. Vielmehr war die von Sander postulierte Gestaltschließung auch dort ein quasi naturgegebenes Phänomen, wo etwa die "gute Gestalt" des deutsch-arischen Volkes alles "gestaltfremde" (wie etwa Juden, Kommunisten, Homosexuelle etc.) abzutöten tendierte. So befürwortet Friedrich Sander die "Ausschaltung des parasitisch wuchernden Judentums" und die Zwangssterilisierung von Deutschen mit "minderwertigem Erbgut" als Ausdrucke eines "Willens zur reinen Gestalt deutschen Wesens" (Nationalsozialistisches Bildungswesen, 1937).
Sander (und sein Institut) wurde mit Untersuchungen über visuelle Aktualgenese bekannt, die in einer Stufen-Differenzierung des Perzepts bei kontinuierlicher Reizsteigerung bestand. Weder Krueger noch Sander versuchten, die Abfolge der entstehenden Gestaltqualitäten irgendwelchen sie bedingenden strukturellen Gegebenheiten zuzuordnen. Sowohl der aktualgenetische Forschungsansatz als auch die Strukturtheorie sind der Vergessenheit anheimgefallen und werden im 'mainstream' nicht mehr diskutiert.
Lediglich die Arbeiten Otto Klemms (1884-1939) und seiner Mitarbeiter und Promovenden zur menschlichen Motorik konnten sich im wissenschaftlichen Diskurs bis in die Gegenwart hinein halten und werden mit einer durchgängigen Kontinuität in der Arbeits- und Bewegungswissenschaft zitiert. Sie basieren zwar auf dem Gedankengut der Ganzheitspsychologie, enthalten sich jedoch weitestgehend irrationalistischer Überhöhungen und ideologischer Verfügbarmachung im Rahmen des Nationalsozialismus. Die Erkenntnisse sowie die äußerst sorgfältige und für die damalige Zeit vorbildhafte Methodik beanspruchen auch heute noch Gültigkeit.[2]
Zudem erfahren die Arbeiten Felix Kruegers, nach 1945 lange Zeit ohne bedeutsamen Widerhall in der Psychologie, aktuell eine zögerliche Neubewertung im Zusammenhang mit der psychotherapeutischen Praxis. Insbesondere seine Ausführungen zur Gefühlstheorie und seine Betonung der Ganzheitlichkeit sind in diesem Kontext durchaus attraktive Konzepte einer heilenden Arbeit am und mit dem Menschen.[3]
Würzburger Schule der Gestaltpsychologie [Bearbeiten]
Hierzu zählen Oswald Külpe, Narziß Ach, Karl Bühler, Karl Marbe.
Grazer oder Österreichische Schule der Gestaltpsychologie [Bearbeiten]
Philosophischer Hintergrund: Franz Brentano. Bedeutende Vertreter waren: Alexius Meinong und vor allem Vittorio Benussi - auf den die Entwicklung des Lügendetektors zurückgeht und der der allgemeinen experimentalpsychologischen Forschung auch die Methoden der Suggestion und Hypnose erschloss - sowie Stephan Witasek und Christian von Ehrenfels.
Schweizer Psychologen und die Gestaltpsychologie [Bearbeiten]
Richard Meili, der Nachfolger von Jean Piaget am Institut J.J. Rousseau in Genf, hat durch seine Kenntnisse der deutschen, französischen und englischsprachigen Forschung die Grundideen der Gestaltpsychologie mit dem Konzept der Faktorenanalyse kombiniert. Er definiert die wesentlichen Punkte der Gestaltpsychologie wie folgt:
Psychische Vorgänge spielen sich in einem komplexen, offenen System ab, in dem jedes Teilsystem von übergeordneten, umfassenderen Systemen mitbestimmt ist.
Ein System ist ein dynamisches Ganzes, bestimmt durch das Zueinander der Teile.
Die Dynamik des psychischen Systems ist charakterisiert durch eine Tendenz zu ausgezeichneten Zuständen, d.h. zu Strukturen mit ausgeglichenen dynamischen Beziehungen...
Von ganz besonderer Bedeutung für die kognitiven Vorgänge, mit denen wir es zu tun haben, ist das Prinzip vom «Primat des Ganzen». Ein wichtiger Intelligenzfaktor, die Plastizität, bezieht sich demnach auf die Fähigkeit, Problemsituationen "umzustrukturieren", also - nach Karl Duncker - die funktionale Gebundenheit zu überwinden. [4]
Einer seiner Schüler, Hans-Werner Hunziker, hat später (auf diesem Konzept aufbauend) eine Serie von Trainingsprogrammen auf PC-Basis erstellt und durch Forschungsarbeiten dokumentiert.
Siehe auch [Bearbeiten]

Bewegungsgestalt
Farbe (bes. Psychologische Wirkung)
Gestalt
Gestalttheorie
Gestaltpädagogik
Gestalttherapie
Optische Täuschung
Schlüsselreiz
Literatur [Bearbeiten]

Christian von Ehrenfels: Über Gestaltqualitäten. Vierteljahrsschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 14, 1890, S. 249-292.
Benussi, Vittorio (2002). Psychologische Schriften 1. Textkritische Ausgabe in 2 Bänden herausgegeben von Mauro Antonelli. Bd. I. Psychologische Aufsätze (1904-1914). Bd. 2 Psychologie der Zeitauffassung (1913). Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Erwin Lemche: Der gestalttheoretische Aspekt und sein Einfluss auf die Interventionsweise bei S.H. Foulkes.
Wolfgang Metzger: Gesetze des Sehens. Kramer, Frankfurt/M. 1953.
Wolfgang Metzger: Psychologie. Die Entwicklung ihrer Grundannahmen seit der Einführung des Experiments. Steinkopf, Darmstadt 1954.
Wolf Singer: Gestaltwahrnehmung: Zusammenspiel von Auge und Hirn. In: H. Kettenmann und M. Gibson: Kosmos Gehirn. Neurowissenschaftliche Gesellschaft e. V. und BMBF, Berlin 2002.
Albert Wellek: Das Problem des seelischen Seins. Die Strukturtheorie Felix Kruegers: Deutung und Kritik. 2. erweiterte Auflage, Hain, Meisenheim/Glan 1953.
Weblinks [Bearbeiten]

Commons: Gestaltpsychologie – Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien
Gesellschaft für Gestalttheorie und ihre Anwendungen (GTA)
Stichwort: Gestaltpsychologie (Lexikon der Gestalttherapie)
Beispiele für Gestaltwahrnehmungen:
- Gestaltpsychologie
Einzelnachweise [Bearbeiten]

↑ Stephen E. Palmer: Vision Science. MIT Press, Cambridge (USA) 1999, ISBN 978-0262161831.
↑ Eberhard Loosch: Otto Klemm (1884–1939) und das Psychologische Institut in Leipzig. LIT, Berlin 2008, ISBN 978-3-8258-0981-2.
↑ Mark Galliker, Margot Klein, Sibylle Rykart: Felix Krueger. In: Meilensteine der Psychologie. Kröner, Stuttgart 2007, ISBN 978-3-520-33401-5, S. 304-308.
↑ Richard Meili: Die Struktur der Intelligenz. Verlag Hans Huber, 1981. ISBN 3-456-80908-5, S. 58.
Kategorien: Psychologische SchuleWahrnehmungGestalttherapie
قس
Gestalt psychology or gestaltism (German: Gestalt – "essence or shape of an entity's complete form") is a theory of mind and brain of the Berlin School; the operational principle of gestalt psychology is that the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies. The principle maintains that the human eye sees objects in their entirety before perceiving their individual parts. Gestalt psychologists stipulate that perception is the product of complex interactions among various stimuli. Contrary to the behaviouralist approach to understanding the elements of cognitive processes, gestalt psychologists sought to understand their organization (Carlson and Heth, 2010). The gestalt effect is the form-generating capability of our senses, particularly with respect to the visual recognition of figures and whole forms instead of just a collection of simple lines and curves. In psychology, gestaltism is often opposed to structuralism. The phrase "The whole is greater than the sum of the parts" is often used when explaining gestalt theory,[1] though this is a mistranslation of Kurt Koffka's original phrase, "The whole is other than the sum of the parts".[2] Gestalt theory allows for the breakup of elements from the whole situation into what it really is.[3]
Contents [show]
[edit]Origins

The concept of gestalt was first introduced in contemporary philosophy and psychology by Christian von Ehrenfels (a member of the School of Brentano). The idea of gestalt has its roots in theories by David Hume, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, David Hartley, and Ernst Mach. Max Wertheimer's unique contribution was to insist that the "gestalt" is perceptually primary, defining the parts of which it was composed, rather than being a secondary quality that emerges from those parts, as von Ehrenfels's earlier Gestalt-Qualität had been.
Both von Ehrenfels and Edmund Husserl seem to have been inspired by Mach's work Beiträge zur Analyse der Empfindungen (Contributions to the Analysis of Sensations, 1886), in formulating their very similar concepts of gestalt and figural moment, respectively. On the philosophical foundations of these ideas see Foundations of Gestalt Theory (Smith, ed., 1988).
Early 20th century theorists, such as Kurt Koffka, Max Wertheimer, and Wolfgang Köhler (students of Carl Stumpf) saw objects as perceived within an environment according to all of their elements taken together as a global construct. This 'gestalt' or 'whole form' approach sought to define principles of perception – seemingly innate mental laws which determined the way in which objects were perceived. It is based on the here and now, and in the way you view things. It can be broken up into two: figure or ground (figure–ground principle), at first glance do you see the figure in front of you or the background?
These laws took several forms, such as the grouping of similar, or proximate, objects together, within this global process. Although gestalt has been criticized for being merely descriptive, it has formed the basis of much further research into the perception of patterns and objects ( Carlson et al. 2000), and of research into behavior, thinking, problem solving and psychopathology.
[edit]Gestalt therapy
The founders of Gestalt therapy, Fritz and Laura Perls, had worked with Kurt Goldstein, a neurologist who had applied principles of Gestalt psychology to the functioning of the organism. Laura Perls had been a Gestalt psychologist before she became a psychoanalyst and before she began developing Gestalt therapy together with Fritz Perls.[4] The extent to which Gestalt psychology influenced Gestalt therapy is disputed, however. In any case it is not identical with Gestalt psychology. On the one hand, even Laura Perls preferred not to use the term "Gestalt" to name the emerging new therapy; on the other hand, Perls eclectic approach clearly adopted some of Goldstein's work.[5] Thus, though recognizing the historical connection and the influence, most gestalt psychologists emphasize that gestalt therapy is not a form of gestalt psychology.[6]
[edit]Theoretical framework and methodology

The investigations developed at the beginning of the 20th century, based on traditional scientific methodology, divided the object of study into a set of elements that could be analyzed separately with the objective of reducing the complexity of this object. Contrary to this methodology, the school of gestalt practiced a series of theoretical and methodological principles that attempted to redefine the approach to psychological research.
The theoretical principles are the following:
Principle of Totality – The conscious experience must be considered globally (by taking into account all the physical and mental aspects of the individual simultaneously) because the nature of the mind demands that each component be considered as part of a system of dynamic relationships.
Principle of psychophysical isomorphism – A correlation exists between conscious experience and cerebral activity.
Based on the principles above the following methodological principles are defined:
Phenomenon experimental analysis – In relation to the Totality Principle any psychological research should take as a starting point phenomena and not be solely focused on sensory qualities.
Biotic experiment – The school of gestalt established a need to conduct real experiments which sharply contrasted with and opposed classic laboratory experiments. This signified experimenting in natural situations, developed in real conditions, in which it would be possible to reproduce, with higher fidelity, what would be habitual for a subject.[7]
[edit]Support from cybernetics and neurology

In the 1940s and 1950s, laboratory research in neurology and what became known as cybernetics on the mechanism of frogs' eyes indicate that perception of 'gestalts' (in particular gestalts in motion) is perhaps more primitive and fundamental than 'seeing' as such:
A Frog hunts on land by vision... He has no fovea, or region of greatest acuity in vision, upon which he must center a part of the image... The frog does not seem to see or, at any rate, is not concerned with the detail of stationary parts of the world around him. He will starve to death surrounded by food if it is not moving. His choice of food is determined only by size and movement. He will leap to capture any object the size of an insect or worm, providing it moves like one. He can be fooled easily not only by a piece of dangled meat but by any moving small object... He does remember a moving thing provided it stays within his field of vision and he is not distracted.[8]
Cyberneticist Valentin Turchin points out that the gestalts observed in what we usually imagine to be 'still images' are in fact exactly the kind of 'moving objects' which cause the frog's retina to respond:
The lowest-level concepts related to visual perception for a human being probably differ little from the concepts of a frog. In any case, the structure of the retina in mammals and in human beings is the same as in amphibians. The phenomenon of distortion of perception of an image stabilized on the retina gives some idea of the concepts of the subsequent levels of the hierarchy. This is a very interesting phenomenon. When a person looks at an immobile object, “fixes” it with his eyes, the eyeballs do not remain absolutely immobile; they make small involuntary movements. As a result the image of the object on the retina is constantly in motion, slowly drifting and jumping back to the point of maximum sensitivity. The image “marks time” in the vicinity of this point.[9]
[edit]Properties

The key principles of gestalt systems are emergence, reification, multistability and invariance.[10]
[edit]Emergence
Emergence is the process of complex pattern formation from simpler rules. It is demonstrated by the perception of the dog picture, which depicts a Dalmatian dog sniffing the ground in the shade of overhanging trees. The dog is not recognized by first identifying its parts (feet, ears, nose, tail, etc.), and then inferring the dog from those component parts. Instead, the dog is perceived as a whole, all at once. However, this is a description of what occurs in vision and not an explanation. Gestalt theory does not explain how the percept of a dog emerges.
[edit]Reification


Reification
Reification is the constructive or generative aspect of perception, by which the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based.
For instance, a triangle will be perceived in picture A, although no triangle has actually been drawn. In pictures B and D the eye will recognize disparate shapes as "belonging" to a single shape, in C a complete three-dimensional shape is seen, where in actuality no such thing is drawn.
Reification can be explained by progress in the study of illusory contours, which are treated by the visual system as "real" contours.
See also: Reification (fallacy)
[edit]Multistability


the Necker Cube and the Rubin vase, two examples of multistability
Multistability (or multistable perception) is the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth unstably between two or more alternative interpretations. This is seen for example in the Necker cube, and in Rubin's Figure/Vase illusion shown here. Other examples include the Three-legged blivet and artist M. C. Escher's artwork and the appearance of flashing marquee lights moving first one direction and then suddenly the other. Again, gestalt does not explain how images appear multistable, only that they do.
[edit]Invariance


Invariance
Invariance is the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognized independent of rotation, translation, and scale; as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different component features. For example, the objects in A in the figure are all immediately recognized as the same basic shape, which are immediately distinguishable from the forms in B. They are even recognized despite perspective and elastic deformations as in C, and when depicted using different graphic elements as in D. Computational theories of vision, such as those by David Marr, have had more success in explaining how objects are classified.
Emergence, reification, multistability, and invariance are not necessarily separable modules to be modeled individually, but they could be different aspects of a single unified dynamic mechanism.[citation needed]
[edit]Prägnanz

Main article: Principles of grouping
The fundamental principle of gestalt perception is the law of prägnanz (in the German language, pithiness) which says that we tend to order our experience in a manner that is regular, orderly, symmetric, and simple. Gestalt psychologists attempt to discover refinements of the law of prägnanz, and this involves writing down laws which hypothetically allow us to predict the interpretation of sensation, what are often called "gestalt laws".[11] These include:


Law of closure


Law of similarity


Law of proximity
[edit]Gestalt Laws of Grouping

A major aspect of Gestalt psychology is that it implies that the mind understands external stimuli as whole rather than the sum of their parts. The wholes are structured and organized using grouping laws. The various laws are called laws or principles depending on the paper in which they are discussed but for simplicity sake this article will use the term laws. These laws deal with the sensory modality vision however there are analogous laws for other sensory modalities including auditory, tactile, gustatory and olfactory (Bregman - GP). The visual Gestalt principles of grouping were introduced in Wertheimer (1923). Through the 1930s and '40s Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka formulated many of the laws of grouping through the study of visual perception.[12]
Law of Proximity – The law of proximity states that when an individual perceives an assortment of objects they perceive objects that are close to each other as forming a group. For example, in the figure illustrating the Law of Proximity, there are 72 circles in total, but we perceive the collection of circles to be in groups. Specifically, we perceive there to be a group of 36 circles on the left side of the image, and three groups of 12 circles on the right side of the image. This law is often used in advertising logos to emphasize which aspects of events are associated.[12][13]
Law of Similarity – The law of similarity states that elements within an assortment of objects will be perceptually grouped together if they are similar to each other. This similarity can occur in the form of shape, colour, shading or other qualities. For example, the figure illustrating the law of similarity portrays 36 circles all equal distance apart from one another forming a square. In this depiction, 18 of the circles are shaded dark and 18 of the circles are shaded light. We perceive the dark circles to be grouped together and the light circles to be grouped together forming six horizontal lines within the square of circles. This perception of lines is due to the law of similarity.[13]
Law of Closure – The law of closure states that individuals perceive objects such as shapes, letters, pictures, etc., as being whole when they not complete. Specifically, when parts of a whole picture are missing, our perception fills in the visual gap. Research has shown that the purpose of completing a regular figure that is not perceived through sensation is in order to increase the regularity of surrounding stimuli. For example, the figure depicting the law of closure portrays what we perceive to be a circle on the left side of the image and a square on the right side of the image. However, there are gaps missing from the shapes. If the law of closure did not exist, the image would depict an assortment of different lines with different lengths, rotations and curvatures, but with the law of closure, we perceptually combine the lines into whole shapes.[12][13]
Law of Symmetry – The law of symmetry states that the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point. It is perceptually pleasing to be able to divide objects into an even number of symmetrical parts. Therefore, when two symmetrical elements are unconnected the mind perceptually connects them to form a coherent shape. Similarities between symmetrical objects increase the likelihood that objects will be grouped to form a combined symmetrical object. For example, the figure depicting the law of symmetry shows a configuration of square and curled brackets. When the image is perceived, we tend to observe three pairs of symmetrical brackets rather than six individual brackets.[12][13]

Law of Common Fate – The law of common fate states that objects are perceived as lines that move along the smoothest path. Experiments using the visual sensory modality found that movement of elements of an object produce paths individuals perceive objects to be on. We perceive elements of objects to have trends of motion, which indicate the path that the object is on. The law of continuity implies the grouping together of objects that have the same trend of motion and are therefore on the same path. For example, if there are an array of dots and half the dots are moving upward while the other half are moving downward, we would perceive the upward moving dots and the downward moving dots as two distinct units.[14]
Law of Continuity – The law of continuity states that elements of objects tend to be grouped together, and therefore integrated into perceptual wholes if they are aligned within an object. In cases where there is an intersection between objects, individuals tend to perceive the two objects as two single uninterrupted entities. Stimuli remain distinct even with overlap. We are less likely to group elements with sharp abrupt directional changes as being one object.[12]
Law of Good Gestalt – The law of good gestalt explains that elements of objects tend to be perceptually grouped together if they form a pattern that is regular, simple and orderly. This law implies that as individuals perceive the world, they eliminate complexity and unfamiliarity in order to observe a reality in its most simplistic form. The elimination of extraneous stimuli aids the mind in creating meaning. This meaning created by perception implies a global regularity, which is often mentally prioritized over spatial relations. The law of good gestalt focuses on the idea of conciseness which is what all of gestalt theory is based on. This law has also been called the law of Prägnanz.[12] Prägnanz is a German word that directly translates to mean “pithiness” and implies the ideas of salience, conciseness and orderliness.[14]
Law of Past Experience – The law of past experience implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. If two objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together. For example, the English language, which contains 26 letters are grouped to form words using a set of rules. If an individual reads an English word that they have never come across they use the law of past experience to interpret the letter’s “L” and “I” as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U.[14]
The gestalt laws of grouping have recently been subjected to modern methods of scientific evaluation by examining the visual cortex using cortical algorithms. Current Gestalt psychologists have described their findings, which showed correlations between physical visual representations of objects and self-report perception as the laws of seeing.[14]
[edit]Gestalt views in psychology

Gestalt psychologists find it is important to think of problems as a whole. Max Wertheimer considered thinking to happen in two ways: productive and reproductive.[11]
Productive thinking is solving a problem with insight.
This is a quick insightful unplanned response to situations and environmental interaction.
Reproductive thinking is solving a problem with previous experiences and what is already known. (1945/1959).
This is a very common thinking. For example, when a person is given several segments of information, he/she deliberately examines the relationships among its parts, analyzes their purpose, concept, and totality, he/she reaches the "aha!" moment, using what is already known. Understanding in this case happens intentionally by reproductive thinking.
Another gestalt psychologist, Perkins, believes insight deals with three processes:
Unconscious leap in thinking.[11]
The increased amount of speed in mental processing.
The amount of short-circuiting which occurs in normal reasoning.[15]
Views going against the gestalt psychology are:
Nothing-special view
Neo-gestalt view
The Three-Process View
Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked to gestalt psychology. A strictly gestalt psychology-based therapeutic method is Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy, developed by the German gestalt psychologist and psychotherapist Hans-Jürgen Walter.
[edit]Uses in human–computer interaction

The gestalt laws are used in user interface design. The laws of similarity and proximity can, for example, be used as guides for placing radio buttons. They may also be used in designing computers and software for more intuitive human use. Examples include the design and layout of a desktop's shortcuts in rows and columns. Gestalt psychology also has applications in computer vision for trying to make computers "see" the same things as humans do.[16]
James J. Gibson was a Gestalt Psychologist who focused on vision and what he termed ecological perception. He also coined the term affordance which has been productive of various human factors and usability research.
[edit]Criticism

In some scholarly communities, such as cognitive psychology and computational neuroscience, gestalt theories of perception are criticized for being descriptive rather than explanatory in nature. For this reason, they are viewed by some as redundant or uninformative. For example, Bruce, Green & Georgeson[17] conclude the following regarding gestalt theory's influence on the study of visual perception:
The physiological theory of the gestaltists has fallen by the wayside, leaving us with a set of descriptive principles, but without a model of perceptual processing. Indeed, some of their "laws" of perceptual organisation today sound vague and inadequate. What is meant by a "good" or "simple" shape, for example?
[edit]See also

Psychology portal
Gestalt therapy – often mistaken for gestalt psychology
Structural information theory
Rudolf Arnheim
Wolfgang Metzger
Kurt Goldstein
Pál Schiller Harkai
Solomon Asch
Hermann Friedmann
James J. Gibson
James Tenney
Graz School
Important publications in gestalt psychology
Mereology
Optical illusion
Pattern recognition (psychology)
Pattern recognition (machine learning)
Amodal perception
Phenomenology
Fuzzy-trace theory
Laws of Association
[edit]References

^ David Hothersall: History of Psychology, chapter seven,(2004)
^ Tuck, Michael. "Gestalt Principles Applied in Design (Aug 17 2010)". Retrieved 11/12/11.
^ Humphrey, G. (1924). The psychology of the gestalt. Journal of Educational Psychology, 15(7), 401–412. doi:10.1037/h0070207
^ Bernd Bocian:Fritz Perls in Berlin 1893–1933. Expressionism – Psychonalysis – Judaism, 2010, p. 190, EHP Verlag Andreas Kohlhage, Bergisch Gladbach.
^ Allen R. Barlow, "Gestalt-Antecedent Influence or Historical Accident", The Gestalt Journal, Volume IV, Number 2, (Fall, 1981)
^ Mary Henle noted in her presidential address to Division 24 at the meeting of the American Psychological Association (1975): "What Perls has done has been to take a few terms from Gestalt psychology, stretch their meaning beyond recognition, mix them with notions – often unclear and often incompatible – from the depth psychologies, existentialism, and common sense, and he has called the whole mixture gestalt therapy. His work has no substantive relation to scientific Gestalt psychology. To use his own language, Fritz Perls has done 'his thing'; whatever it is, it is not Gestalt psychology". Gestalt theory. However she restricts herself explicitly to only three of Perls' books from 1969 and 1972, leaving out Perls' earlier work, and Gestalt therapy in general. See Barlow critizing Henle: Allen R. Barlow: Gestalt Therapy and Gestalt Psychology. Gestalt – Antecedent Influence or Historical Accident, in: The Gestalt Journal, Volume IV, Number 2, Fall, 1981.
^ William Ray Woodward, Robert Sonné Cohen – World views and scientific discipline formation: science studies in the German Democratic Republic : papers from a German-American summer institute, 1988
^ Lettvin, J.Y., Maturana, H.R., Pitts, W.H., and McCulloch, W.S. (1961). Two Remarks on the Visual System of the Frog. In Sensory Communication edited by Walter Rosenblith, MIT Press and John Wiley and Sons: New York
^ Valentin Fedorovich Turchin – The phenomenon of science – a cybernetic approach to human evolution – Columbia University Press, 1977
^ "Gestalt Isomorphism". Sharp.bu.edu. Retrieved 2012-04-06.
^ a b c Sternberg, Robert, Cognitive Psychology Third Edition, Thomson Wadsworth© 2003.
^ a b c d e f Stevenson, Herb. "Emergence: The Gestalt Approach to Change". Unleashing Executive and Orzanizational Potential. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
^ a b c d Soegaard, Mads. "Gestalt Principles of form Perception". Interaction Design. Retrieved 8 April 2012.
^ a b c d Todorovic, Dejan. "Gestalt Principles". scholarpedia. Retrieved 5 April 2012.
^ Langley& associates, 1987; Perkins, 1981; Weisberg, 1986,1995”
^ Soegaard, Mads. "Gestalt principles of form perception". Interaction-design.org. Retrieved 2012-04-06.
^ Bruce, V., Green, P. & Georgeson, M. (1996). Visual perception: Physiology, psychology and ecology (3rd ed.). LEA. p. 110.
Carlson, Neil R. and Heth, C. Donald (2010) Psychology the Science of Behaviour Ontario, CA: Pearson Education Canada. pp 20–22.
Smith, Barry (ed.) (1988) Foundations of Gestalt Theory, Munich and Vienna: Philosophia Verlag, 1988.
http://www.theoryofknowledge.net/ways-of-knowing/sense-perception/how-do-our-senses-work.php
[edit]External links

Gestalt Society of Croatia
International Society for Gestalt Theory and its Applications – GTA
Embedded Figures in Art, Architecture and Design
On Max Wertheimer and Pablo Picasso
On Esthetics and Gestalt Theory
The World In Your Head – by Steven Lehar
Gestalt Isomorphism and the Primacy of Subjective Conscious Experience – by Steven Lehar
The new gestalt psychology of the 21st century
The Pennsylvania Gestalt Center
Gestalt Theory
Ecological Approach to Visual Perception
James J. Gibson in brief
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