صربی کرواتی

زبان صربی کرواتی یا زبان صربی-کرواتی-بوسنیایی زبانی از گروه زبان‌های اسلاوی جنوبی است. این زبان خود به چندین نوع زبان استاندارد، هم در شکل نوشتاری و هم در شکل محاوره‌ای تقسیم می‌شود. زبان صربی کرواتی در کشورهای مونته نگرو، بوسنی و هرزگوین، صربستان و کرواسی زبان اصلی و پایه به شمار می‌رود. اصطلاح صربی کرواتی بنا بر توافق‌نامه وین در سال ۱۸۵۰، یعنی هنگامی که صربستان و کرواسی هنوز جزء خاک امپراطوری عثمانی و امپراطوری هابسبورگ بودند، برقرار و مصطلح گردید.[۱]
منابع [ویرایش]

↑ مشارکت‌کنندگان ویکی‌پدیا، «Serbo-Croatian»، ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی، دانشنامهٔ آزاد (بازیابی در ۷ ژانویه ۲۰۱۱).
[نهفتن]
ن • ب • و
زبان‌ها و گویش‌های اسلاوی
اسلاوی شرقی
بلاروسی اسلاوی شرقی باستان† گویش نووگورود باستان† روسی روسین روتنی† اوکراینی
اسلاوی غربی
چکی کاشوبی کنانیک† سورابی پایین پانونی روسین پولابی† لهستانی پومرانی† اسلواکیایی اسلووینسی† سورابی بالا
اسلاوی جنوبی
بلغاری بانات بلغاری اسلاوی کلیسایی مقدونی اسلاوی کلیسایی باستان† زبان‌ صرب‌و‌کرووات (بوسنیایی، بونیه‌واک، کروواتی، مونته‌نگروئی، صربی، شوکاک) اسلاویک یونان اسلونیایی
دیگر
نیااسلاوی† روسه‌نورسک† اسلاووصربی† اسلوویو
رده‌ها: زبان صربی کرواتی بوسنی و هرزگوین زبان‌های اروپازبان‌های صربستان زبان‌های کوزوو زبان‌های مونته‌نگروصربستان کرواسی

قس انگلیسی
Serbo-Croatian[3] or Serbo-Croat[4], less commonly Bosnian/Croatian/Montenegrin/Serbian (BCMS)[5][6] is a South Slavic language and the primary language of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, and Serbia. Since it has four standard variants, it is a pluricentric language.[7][8][9] Its variants do differ slightly, as is the case with other pluricentric languages (English, French, Spanish, German, Hindustani and Portuguese, among others), but not to a degree which would justify considering them as different languages.[10][11][12] The differences between the variants do not undermine the integrity of the system as a whole and do not hinder mutual intelligibility.[13][14] Compared to the differences between the variants of English, German, French, Spanish, Hindustani or Portuguese, the distinctions between the variants of Serbo-Croatian are less significant.[15]
The language was standardised in the mid 19th century, many decades before the first Yugoslavia was established.[16] From the very beginning, it has had a pluricentric standardisation.[17] Croats and Serbs differ in religion and have historically lived under different empires, and have adopted slightly different literary forms as their respective standard variants. Since independence, Bosnian has likewise been established as an official standard in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Currently, there is a movement to codify a Montenegrin standard. Thus Serbo-Croatian generally goes by the ethnic names Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian.[18] All four standard variants are based on the same dialect (Štokavian).[19] In the 20th century, Serbo-Croatian had served as the official language of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, and later of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The dissolution of Yugoslavia affected language attitudes, so that social conceptions of the language separated on ethnic and political lines.
Among pluricentric languages,[20] Serbo-Croatian was the only one with a pluricentric standardisation within one state.[21] The dissolution of Yugoslavia has made Serbo-Croatian even more typical pluricentric language, since the variants of other pluricentric languages are also spoken in different states.[22]
Contents [show]
Name

The term Serbo-Croatian was first used by Jacob Grimm in 1824,[23][24] popularized by the Vienna philologist Jernej Kopitar in the following decades, and accepted by Zagrebian grammarians in 1854 and 1859.[25] At that time, Serb and Croat lands were still part of the Ottoman and Habsburg Empires. Officially, the language was called variously Serbo-Croat, Croato-Serbian, Serbian and Croatian, Croatian and Serbian, Serbian or Croatian, Croatian or Serbian. Unofficially, Serbs and Croats typically called the language "Serbian" or "Croatian", respectively, without implying a distinction between the two,[26] and indeed in newly independent Bosnia and Herzegovina, "Croatian", "Bosnian", and "Serbian" were considered to be three names of a single official language.[27] Croatian linguist Dalibor Brozović advocated the term Serbo-Croatian as late as 1988, claiming that in an analogy with Indo-European, Serbo-Croatian does not only name the two components of the same language, but simply charts the limits of the region in which it is spoken and includes everything between the limits (‘Bosnian’ and ‘Montenegrin’).[28] Today, use of the term "Serbo-Croatian" is controversial due to the prejudice that nation and language must match.[29][30][31] It is still used for lack of a succinct alternative,[32] though alternative names have been used, such as Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS)[33], which is often seen in political contexts such as the Hague War Crimes tribunal.
History

Throughout the history of the South Slavs, the vernacular, literary, and written languages (e.g. Čakavian, Kajkavian, Štokavian) of the various regions and ethnicities developed and diverged independently. Prior to the 19th century, they were called "Illyric", "Slavic", "Slavonian", "Bosnian", "Dalmatian", "Serbian" or "Croatian"[34] and were unstandardized despite the presence of an extensive vernacular literature developed in the different local dialects.


Đuro Daničić, Rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika (Croatian or Serbian Dictionary) 1882.
In the mid 19th century, Serbian (led by self-taught writer and folklorist Vuk Stefanović Karadžić) and most Croatian writers and linguists (represented by the Illyrian movement and led by Ljudevit Gaj and Đuro Daničić), proposed the use of the most widespread Štokavian dialect as the base for their common standard language. Karadžić standardised the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet, and Gaj and Daničić standardized the Croatian Latin alphabet, on the basis of vernacular speech phonemes and the principle of phonological spelling. In 1850 Serbian and Croatian writers and linguists signed the Vienna Literary Agreement, declaring their intention to create a unified standard.[35] Thus a complex bi-variant language appeared, which the Serbs officially called "Serbo-Croatian" or "Serbian or Croatian" and the Croats "Croato-Serbian", or "Croatian or Serbian". Yet, in practice, the variants of the conceived common literary language served as different literary variants, chiefly differing in lexical inventory and stylistic devices. The common phrase describing this situation was that Serbo-Croatian or "Croatian or Serbian" was a single language.
With unification of the first the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes – the approach of Karadžić and the Illyrians became dominant. The official language was called "Serbo-Croato-Slovene" until the very end of that kingdom. Because of the unitarian politics of King Aleksandar I Karađorđević, as of 1929, the country's name was changed to Kingdom of Yugoslavia, all ethnic denominations were erased, and the "Yugoslavian" became the only official language.[citation needed]
On January 15, 1944, the Anti-Fascist Council of the People's Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ) declared Croatian, Serbian, Slovene, and Macedonian to be equal in the entire territory of Yugoslavia.[36] In 1945 the decision to recognize Croatian and Serbian as separate languages was reversed in favor of a single Serbo-Croatian or Croato-Serbian language.[36] In the Communist-dominated second Yugoslavia, ethnic issues eased to an extent, but the matter of language remained blurred and unresolved.
In 1954, major Serbian and Croatian writers, linguists and literary critics, backed by Matica srpska and Matica hrvatska signed the Novi Sad Agreement, which in its first conclusion stated: "Serbs, Croats and Montenegrins share a single language with two equal variants that have developed around Zagreb (western) and Belgrade (eastern)". The agreement insisted on the equal status of Cyrillic and Latin scripts, and of ekavik and ijekavik pronunciations.[37] It also specified that Serbo-Croatian should be the name of the language in official contexts, while in unofficial use the traditional Serbian and Croatian were to be retained.[37] Matica hrvatska and Matica srpska were to work together on a dictionary, and a committee of Serbian and Croatian linguists was asked to prepare a pravopis. During the sixties both books were published simultaneously in ijekavik and Latin in Zagreb and ekavik and Cyrillic in Novi Sad.[38] Yet Croatian linguists claim that it was an act of unitarism. The evidence supporting this claim is patchy: Croatian linguist Stjepan Babić complained that the television transmission from Belgrade always used the Latin alphabet[39]— which was true, but was not proof of unequal rights, but of frequency of use and prestige. Babić further complained that the Novi Sad Dictionary (1967) listed side by side words from both the Croatian and Serbian variants wherever they differed,[39] which one can view as proof of careful respect for both variants, and not of unitarism. Moreover, Croatian linguists criticized those parts of the Dictionary for being unitaristic that were written by Croatian linguists.[40] And finally, Croatian linguists ignored the fact that the material for the Pravopisni rječnik came from the Croatian Philological Society.[41][42] Regardless of these facts, Croatian intellectuals brought the Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Literary Language in 1967. On occasion of the publication’s 45th anniversary, the Croatian weekly journal Forum published the Declaration again in 2012, accompanied by a critical analysis.[43]
West European scientists judge the Yugoslav language policy as an exemplary one:[44][45] although three-quarters of the population spoke one language, no single language was official on a federal level.[46] Official languages were declared only at the level of constituent republics and provinces,[47][48][49] and very generously: Vojvodina had five (among them Slovak and Romanian, spoken by 0.5 per cent of the population), and Kosovo four (Albanian, Turkish, Romany and Serbo-Croatian).[47][50] Newspapers, radio and television studios used sixteen languages,[51] fourteen were used as languages of tuition in schools, and nine at universities[47][52]. Only the Yugoslav Army used Serbo-Croatian as the sole language of command, with all other languages represented in the army’s other activities — however, this is not different to other armies of multilingual states,[53] or in other specific institutions, such as international air traffic control where English is used worldwide. All variants of Serbo-Croatian were used in state administration and republican and federal institutions.[47] Both Serbian and Croatian variants were represented in respectively different grammar books, dictionaries, school textbooks and in books known as pravopis (which detail spelling rules).[54] Serbo-Croatian was a kind of soft standardisation.[55] However, legal equality could not dampen the prestige Serbo-Croatian had: since it was the language of three quarters of the population, it functioned as an unofficial lingua franca.[56] And within Serbo-Croatian, the Serbian variant, with twice as many speakers as the Croatian,[57] enjoyed greater prestige, reinforced by the fact that Slovene and Macedonian speakers preferred it to the Croatian variant because their languages are also ekavik.[58] This is a common situation in other pluricentric languages, e.g. the variants of German differ according to their prestige, the variants of Portuguese too.[59] Morover, all languages differ in terms of prestige: "the fact is that languages (in terms of prestige, lernability etc.) are not equal, and the law cannot make them equal".[60]
Present situation

Comparison with other pluricentric languages
Enisa Kafadar argues that we are dealing with one Serbo-Croatian language and its varieties.[14] This has made possible to include all four varieties into a new grammar book.[5] Daniel Bunčić concludes that it is a pluricentric language, with four standard variants spoken in Serbia, Croatia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina.[8] The mutual intelligibility between their speakers "exceeds that between the standard variants of English, French, German, or Spanish".[61] Sean McLennan argues that the differences between the variants of Serbo-Croatian are less significant than those between the variants of English.[62] Heinz-Dieter Pohl maintains that the differences between the variants of Serbo-Croatian are less significant than those between the variants of German.[63] Bernhard Gröschel asserts that the differences between the variants of Serbo-Croatian are less significant than those between the Dutch and the Flemish variants of Dutch.[64] Gröschel argues that even linguistic differences between Whites and Blacks in the USA major cities exceed those between the standard variants of Serbo-Croatian.[64] Daniel Blum maintains that the distinctions between the variants of Serbo-Croatian are less significant than those between the Hindi and the Urdu variants of Hindustani.[65]
See also: Differences between Serbo-Croatian standard varieties
Contemporary names


Ethno-political variants of Serbo-Croatian as of 2006.
Current Serbian constitution of 2006 refers to the official language as Serbian,[66] while the Montenegrin constitution of 2007 proclaimed Montenegrin as the primary official language, but also granting others the right of official use.[67]
Most Bosniaks refer to their language as Bosnian.
Most Croats refer to their language as Croatian.
Most Serbs refer to their language as Serbian.
Montenegrins refer to their language either as Serbian or Montenegrin.
Ethnic Bunjevci refer to their language as Bunjevac.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has specified different Universal Decimal Classification (UDC) numbers for Croatian (UDC 862, abbreviation hr) and Serbian (UDC 861, abbreviation sr), while the cover term Serbo-Croatian is used to refer to the combination of original signs (UDC 861/862, abbreviation sh). Furthermore, the ISO 639 standard designates the Bosnian language with the abbreviations bos and bs.
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia considers what it calls BCS (Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian) to be the main language of all Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian defendants. The indictments, documents, and verdicts of the ICTY are not written with any regard for consistently following the grammatical prescriptions of any of the three standards – be they Serbian, Croatian, or Bosnian.
For utilitarian purposes, the Serbo-Croatian language is often called "Naš jezik" ("Our language") by native speakers. This politically correct term is frequently used to describe the Serbo-Croatian language by those who wish to avoid nationalistic and linguistic discussions.[citation needed]
Views of linguists in the former Yugoslavia
Serbian linguists
The majority of mainstream Serbian linguists consider Serbian and Croatian to be one language, that is called Serbo-Croatian (srpskohrvatski) or Croato-Serbian (hrvatskosrpski). A minority of Serbian linguists are of the opinion that Serbo-Croatian did exist, but has, in the meantime, dissolved. Before 1900 and also now, a minority agree that a "Serbo-Croatian" language has never existed and that this term designates a Croatian variant of the Serbian language.[68]
Croatian linguists
The majority of Croatian linguists think that there was never Serbo-Croatian language, but two different standard languages that overlapped sometime in the course of history. However, Croatian linguist Snježana Kordić has been leading an academic discussion on that issue in the Croatian journal Književna republika[69] from 2001 to 2010.[70][71] In the discussion, she shows that linguistic criteria such as mutual intelligibility, huge overlap in linguistic system, and the same dialec basis of standard language provide evidence that Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian and Montenegrin are four national variants of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language.[72][73] Igor Mandić states: "During the last ten years, it has been the longest, the most serious and most acrid discussion (...) in 21st-century Croatian culture".[74] Inspired by that discussion, a monograph on language and nationalism has been published.[75]
The views of the majority of Croatian linguists that there is no Serbo-Croatian language, but several different standard languages, have been sharply criticized by German linguist Bernhard Gröschel in his monograph[76] Serbo-Croatian Between Linguistics and Politics.[77]
A more detailed overview, incorporating arguments from the Croatian philology and contemporary linguistics, would be as follows:
Serbo-Croatian is a language
One still finds many references to Serbo-Croatian, and proponents of Serbo-Croatian who deny that Croats, Serbs, Bosnians and Montenegrins speak different languages. The usual argument generally goes along the following lines:
Standard Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin are completely mutually intelligible.[78][79] In addition, they use two alphabets that perfectly match each other (Latin and Cyrilic), thanks to Ljudevit Gaj and Vuk Karadžić. Croats exclusively use Latin script and Serbs equally use both Cyrillic and Latin. Although Cyrillic is taught in Bosnia, most Bosnians, especially non-Serbs (Bosniaks and Croats), favor Latin.
The list of 100 words of the basic Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin vocabulary, as set out by Morris Swadesh, shows that all 100 words are identical.[80] According to Swadesh, 81 per cent are sufficient to be considered as a single language.[81]
Typologically and structurally, these standard variants have virtually the same grammar, i.e. morphology and syntax.[82][83]
The Serbo-Croatian language was standardised in the mid 19th century, and all subsequent attempts to dissolve its basic unity have not succeeded.
The affirmation of distinct Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin languages is politically motivated.
According to phonology, morphology and syntax, these standard variants are essentially one language because they are based on the same, Štokavian dialect.[84]
Serbo-Croatian is not a language
Similar arguments are made for other official standards which are nearly indistinguishable when spoken and which are therefore pluricentric languages, such as Malaysian, and Indonesian (together called Malay)[85], or Standard Hindi and Urdu (together called Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu)[86]. However, some argue that these arguments have flaws:
Phonology, morphology, and syntax are not the only dimensions of a language: other fields (semantics, pragmatics, stylistics, lexicology, etc.) also differ slightly. However, it is the case with other pluricentric languages.[87] A comparison is made to the closely related North Germanic languages (or dialects, if one prefers), though these are not fully mutually intelligible as the Serbo-Croatian standards are. A closer comparison may be General American and Received Pronunciation in English, which are closer to each other than the latter is to other dialects which are subsumed under "British English".
Since the Croatian language as recorded in Držić and Gundulić's works (16th and 17th centuries) is virtually the same as the contemporary standard Croatian (understandable archaisms apart), it is evident that the 19th century formal standardization was just the final touch in the process that, as far as the Croatian language is concerned, had lasted more than three centuries. The radical break with the past, characteristic of modern Serbian (whose vernacular was likely not as similar to Croatian as it is today), is a trait completely at variance with Croatian linguistic history. In short, formal standardization processes for Croatian and Serbian had coincided chronologically (and, one could add, ideologically), but they haven't produced a unified standard language. Gundulić did not write in "Serbo-Croatian", nor did August Šenoa. Marko Marulić and Marin Držić wrote in a sophisticated idiom of the Croatian language, some 300/350 years before the "Serbo-Croatian" ideology appeared. Marulić explicitly calls his Čakavian-written Judita as u uerish haruacchi slosena ("arranged in Croatian stanzas") in 1501, and Štokavian grammar and dictionary of Bartol Kašić written in 1604 unambiguously identifies ethnonyms Slavic and Illyrian with Croatian.
Politics often becomes a major part of linguistic debates in this area.
The topic of language with the writers from Dalmatia and Dubrovnik prior to the 19th century is somewhat blurred by the fact they by and large placed more emphasis on whether they were Slavic rather than Italian, given that Dalmatian city-states were then inhabited by those two main groups. There was less notable distinction being made between Croats and Serbs, and this, among other things, has been used as an argument to state that these people's literature is not solely Croatian heritage, thus undermining the argument that modern-day Croatian is based on Old Croatian.
However, the major part of intellectuals and writers from Dalmatia who used the Štokavian dialect and were of Catholic faith had explicitly expressed Croatian national affiliation[1], as far back as the mid 16th and 17th centuries, some three hundred years before the Serbo-Croatian ideology had appeared. Their loyalty was first and foremost to the Catholic Christendom, but when they professed ethnic identity, they called it "Slovin" and "Illyrian" (a sort of forerunner of Catholic baroque pan-Slavism) and Croat – these 30-odd writers in the span of ca. 350 years themselves never mentioned Serb ethnic affiliation any time. It should also be noted that, in the pre-national era, a Catholic religious orientation did not necessarily equate with Croat ethnic identity in Dalmatia. A Croatian follower of Vuk Karadžić, Ivan Broz, noted that the Serbian affiliation was as foreign as Macedonian and Greek appellation at this time. Vatroslav Jagić pointed out in 1864:
"As I have mentioned in the preface, history knows only two national names in these parts—Croatian and Serbian. As far as Dubrovnik is concerned, the Serbian name was never in use; on the contrary, the Croatian name was frequently used and gladly referred to"
"At the end of the 15th century [in Dubrovnik and Dalmatia], sermons and poems were exquisitely crafted in the Croatian language by those men whose names are widely renowned by deep learning and piety."
(From The History of the Croatian language, Zagreb, 1864.)
On the other hand, the opinion of Jagić from 1864 is argued not to have firm grounds. When Jagić says "Croatian" he refers to few cases of referring to the Dubrovnik vernacular as ilirski (Illyrian). This was a common name for all Slavic vernaculars in Dalmatian cities among the Roman inhabitants. In the meantime, other written monuments are found that mention srpski, lingua serviana (= Serbian), and also some that mention Croatian.[88] By far the most competent Serbian scientist on Dubrovnik language issue, Milan Rešetar, who was born in Dubrovnik himself, wrote behalf of language characteristics: "The one who thinks that Croatian and Serbian are two separate languages, must confess that Dubrovnik always (linguistically) used to be Serbian."[88]
On the third hand, the former medieval texts from Dubrovnik and Montenegro dating before 16th century were not true Štokavian nor Serbian, but mostly specific Jekavian-Čakavian that was nearer to actual Adriatic islanders in Croatia.[89]
Political connotations
Nationalists have rather conflicting views about the language(s). The nationalists among the Croats conflictingly claim either that they speak an entirely separate language from Serbs and Bosnians or that these two peoples have, due to the longer lexicographic tradition among Croats, somehow "borrowed" their standard languages from them.[citation needed] Bosniak nationalists claim that both Croats and Serbs have "appropriated" the Bosnian language, since Ljudevit Gaj and Vuk Karadžić preferred the Neoštokavian-Ijekavian dialect, widely spoken in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as the basis for language standardization, whereas the nationalists among the Serbs claim either that any divergence in the language is artificial, or claim that the Štokavian dialect is theirs and the Čakavian Croats'— in more extreme formulations Croats have "taken" or "stolen" their language from the Serbs.[citation needed]
Proponents of unity among Southern Slavs claim that there is a single language with normal dialectal variations. The term "Serbo-Croatian" (or synonyms) is not officially used in any of the successor countries of former Yugoslavia.
In Serbia, the Serbian language is the official one, while both Serbian and Croatian are official in the province of Vojvodina. A large Bosniak minority is present in the southwest region of Sandžak, but the "official recognition" of Bosnian language is moot.[90] Bosnian is an optional course in 1st and 2nd grade of the elementary school, while it is also in official use in the municipality of Novi Pazar.[91] However, its nomenclature is controversial, as there is incentive that it is referred to as "Bosniak" (bošnjački) rather than "Bosnian" (bosanski) (see Bosnian language for details).
Croatian is the official language of Croatia, while Serbian is also official in municipalities with significant Serb population.
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, all three languages are recorded as official but in practice and media, mostly Bosnian and Serbian are applied. Therefore, confrontations have on occasion been absurd. The academic Muhamed Filipović in an interview to Slovenian television told of a local court in a Croatian district requesting a paid translator from Bosnian to Croatian before the trial could proceed.[citation needed]
Dialects

This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters.
Main articles: Chakavian dialect, Shtokavian dialect, Kajkavian dialect, and Torlakian dialect
See also: South Slavic dialect continuum
The primary dialects are named after the most common question word for what: Shtokavian uses the pronoun što or šta, Chakavian uses ča or ca, Kajkavian (kajkavski), kaj or kej. The pluricentric Serbo-Croatian standard language and all four contemporary standard variants are based on the Eastern Hercegovinian subdialect of Neo-Shtokavian, the other dialects not taught in schools or used by the state media. Often the Torlakian dialect is added to the list, though scholars nowadays usually classify it as a transitional dialect between Shtokavian and the Bulgaro-Macedonian dialects.


Serbo-Croatian dialects prior to the 16th-century migrations


Shtokavian subdialects in 1988 (Pavle Ivić). Yellow is the widespread Eastern Herzegovinian subdialect that forms the basis of all national standards, though it is not spoken natively in any of the capital cities.


Modern distribution of dialects in Croatia
The Serbo-Croatian dialects differ not only in the question word they are named after, but also heavily in phonology, accentuation and intonation, case endings and tense system (morphology) and basic vocabulary. In the past, Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects were spoken on a much larger territory, but have subsequently been replaced by Štokavian during the period of migrations caused by Ottoman Turkish conquest of the Balkans in the 15th and the 16th century. These migrations caused the koinéisation of the Shtokavian dialects, that used to form the West Shtokavian (more closer and transitional towards the neighbouring Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects) and East Shtokavian (transitional towards the Torlakian and the whole Bulgaro-Macedonian area) dialect bundles, and their subsequent spread at the expense of Chakavian and Kajkavian. As a result, Štokavian now covers an area larger than all the other dialects combined, and continues to make its progress in the enclaves where subliterary dialects are still being spoken.[92]
The differences among the dialects can be illustrated on the example of Schleicher's fable. Diacritic signs are used to show the difference in accents and prosody, which are often quite significant, but which are not reflected in the usual orthography.

Neoštokavian Ijekavian/Ekavian
Óvca i kònji
Óvca koja níje ìmala vȕnē vȉd(j)ela je kònje na br(ij)égu. Jèdan je òd njīh vȗkao téška kȍla, drȕgī je nòsio vèliku vrȅću, a trȅćī je nòsio čòv(j)eka.
Óvca rȅče kònjima: «Sȑce me bòlī glȅdajūći čòv(j)eka kako jȁšē na kònju».
A kònji rȅkoše: «Slȕšāj, ȏvco, nȃs sȑca bòlē kada vȉdīmo da čòv(j)ek, gospòdār, rȃdī vȕnu od ovácā i prȁvī òd(j)eću zá se. I ȍndā óvca nȇmā vȉše vȕnē.
Čȗvši tō, óvca pȍb(j)eže ȕ polje.
Old Štokavian (Orubica, Posavina):
Óvca i kònji
Óvca kòjā nî ìmala vȕnē vȉdla kònje na brîgu. Jèdān od njȉjū vũkō tȇška kȍla, drȕgī nosȉjo vȅlikū vrȅću, a trȅćī nosȉjo čovȉka.
Óvca kȃza kȍnjima: «Svȅ me bolĩ kad glȅdām kako čòvik na kònju jȁšī».
A kònji kāzȁše: «Slȕšāj, ȏvco, nãs sȑca bolũ kad vȉdīmo da čòvik, gȁzda, prȁvī vȕnu od ovãc i prȁvī rȍbu zá se od njẽ. I ȍndā ōvcȁ néma vȉšē vȕnē.
Kad tȏ čȕ ōvcȁ, ȕteče ȕ polje.
Čakavian (Matulji near Rijeka):
Ovcȁ i konjı̏
Ovcȁ kȃ ni imȅla vȕni vȉdela je konjȉ na brȇge. Jedȃn je vȗkal tȇški vȏz, drȕgi je nosîl vȅlu vrȅt'u, a trȅt'i je nosîl čovȅka.
Ovcȁ je reklȁ konjȇn: «Sȑce me bolĩ dok glȅdan čovȅka kako jȁše na konjȅ».
A konjȉ su reklȉ: «Poslȕšaj, ovcȁ, nȃs sȑca bolẽ kad vȉdimo da čovȅk, gospodãr dȅla vȕnu od ovãc i dȅla rȍbu zȃ se. I ȍnda ovcȁ nĩma vȉše vȕni.
Kad je tȏ čȕla, ovcȁ je pobȅgla va pȍje.
Kajkavian (Marija Bistrica):
õfca i kȍjni
õfca tera nı̃je imȅ̩̏la vȕne vȉdla je kȍjne na briẽgu. Jȇn od nîh je vlẽ̩ke̩l tẽška kȍla, drȕgi je nȍsil vȅliku vrȅ̩ču, a trẽjti je nȍsil čovȅ̩ka.
õfca je rȇkla kȍjnem: «Sȑce me bolĩ kad vîdim čovȅka kak jȃše na kȍjnu».
A kȍjni su rȇkli: «Poslȕhni, õfca, nȃs sȑca bolĩju kad vîdime da čȍve̩k, gospodãr, dȇ̩la vȕnu ot õfci i dȇ̩la oblȅ̩ku zȃ se. I ȏnda õfca nȇma vȉše vȕne.
Kad je to čȗla, õfca je pobȇ̩gla f pȍlje.
English language
The Sheep and the Horses
[On a hill,] a sheep that had no wool saw horses, one of them pulling a heavy wagon, one carrying a big load, and one carrying a man quickly.
The sheep said to the horses: "My heart pains me, seeing a man driving horses".
The horses said: "Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: a man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep into a warm garment for himself. And the sheep has no wool".
Having heard this, the sheep fled into the plain.
Division by jat reflex
Main article: yat
A basic distinction among the dialects is in the reflex of the long Common Slavic vowel jat, usually transcribed as *ě. Depending on the reflex, the dialects are divided into Ikavian, Ekavian, and Ijekavian accents, with the reflects of jat being /i/, /e/, and /ije/ or /je/ respectively. The long and short jat is reflected as long or short */i/ and /e/ in Ikavian and Ekavian, but Ijekavian dialects introduce a ije/je alternation to retain a distinction.
Standard Croatian and Bosnian are based on the Ijekavian accent, while Serbian uses both Ekavian and Ijekavian forms (Ijekavian accent for Bosnian Serbs, Ekavian accent for most of Serbia). Influence of standard language through state media and education has caused non-standard varieties to lose ground to the literary forms.
The jat-reflex rules are not without exception. For example, when short jat is preceded by r, in most Ijekavian dialects developed into /re/ or, occasionally, /ri/. The prefix prě- ("trans-, over-") when long became pre- in eastern Ijekavian dialects but to prije- in western dialects; in Ikavian pronunciation, it also evolved into pre- or prije- due to potential ambiguity with pri- ("approach, come close to"). For verbs that had -ěti in their infinitive, the past participle ending -ěl evolved into -io in Ijekavian Neoštokavian.
The following are some examples:
English Predecessor Ekavian Ikavian Ijekavian Ijekavian development
beautiful *lěp lep lip lijep long ě → ije
time *vrěme vreme vrime vrijeme
faith *věra vera vira vjera short ě → je
crossing *prělaz prelaz prеlaz or
prijelaz prеlaz or
prijelaz pr + long ě → prije
times *vrěmena vremena vrimena vremena r + short ě → re
need *trěbati trebati tribat(i) trebati
heat *grějati grejati grijati grijati r + short ě → ri
saw *viděl video vidio vidio ěl → io
village *selo selo selo selo e in root, not ě
Grammar



Kašić's 1604 grammar of the Čakavian dialect, Institutiones linguae Illyricae (Principles of the Illyrian Language)
Further information: Serbo-Croatian grammar
Serbo-Croatian is a highly inflected language. Traditional grammars list seven cases for nouns and adjectives: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, locative, and instrumental, reflecting the original seven cases of Proto-Slavic, and indeed older forms of Serbo-Croatian itself. However, in modern Štokavian the locative has almost merged into dative (the only difference is based on accent in some cases), and the other cases can be shown declining; namely:
For all nouns and adjectives, Instr. = Dat. = Loc. (at least orthographically) in the plural: ženama, ženama, ženama; očima, očima, očima; riječima, riječima, riječima.
There is an accentual difference between the Gen. sing. and Gen. plural of masculine and neuter nouns, which are otherwise homonyms (seljaka, seljaka) except that on occasion an "a" (which might or might not appear in the singular) is filled between the last letter of the root and the Gen. plural ending (kapitalizma, kapitalizama).
The old instrumental ending "ju" of the feminine consonant stems and in some cases the "a" of the genitive plural of certain other sorts of feminine nouns is fast yielding to "i": noći instead of noćju; borbi instead of boraba; and so forth.
Almost every Štokavian number is indeclinable, and numbers after prepositions have not been declined for a long time.
Like most Slavic languages, there are mostly three genders for nouns: masculine, feminine, and neuter, a distinction which is still present even in the plural (unlike Russian and, in part, the Čakavian dialect). They also have two numbers: singular and plural. However, some consider there to be three numbers (paucal or dual, too), since (still preserved in closely related Slovene) after two (dva, dvije/dve), three (tri) and four (četiri), and all numbers ending in them (e.g., twenty-two, ninety-three, one hundred four) the genitive singular is used, and after all other numbers five (pet) and up, the genitive plural is used. (The number one [jedan] is treated as an adjective.) Adjectives are placed in front of the noun they modify and must agree in both case and number with it.
There are seven tenses for verbs: past, present, future, exact future, aorist, imperfect, and plusquamperfect; and three moods: indicative, imperative, and conditional. However, the latter three tenses are typically used only in Štokavian writing, and the time sequence of the exact future is more commonly formed through an alternative construction.
In addition, like most Slavic languages, the Štokavian verb also has one of two aspects: perfective or imperfective. Most verbs come in pairs, with the perfective verb being created out of the imperfective by adding a prefix or making a stem change. The imperfective aspect typically indicates that the action is unfinished, in progress, or repetitive; while the perfective aspect typically denotes that the action was completed, instantaneous, or of limited duration. Some Štokavian tenses (namely, aorist and imperfect) favor a particular aspect (but they are rarer or absent in Čakavian and Kajkavian). Actually, aspects "compensate" for the relative lack of tenses, because aspect of the verb determines whether the act is completed or in progress in the referred time.
Writing systems

Main articles: Gaj's Latin alphabet, Serbian Cyrillic alphabet, and Yugoslav Braille
Through history, this language has been written in a number of writing systems:
Angled, Round, and Triangled Glagolitic alphabet, chiefly in Croatia.
Arabic alphabet (mostly in Bosnia).
Cyrillic script, and its transition to Glagolitic (called Bosančica).
various modifications of the Latin and Greek alphabets.
The oldest texts since 11th century are in Glagolitic, and the oldest preserved text written completely in the Latin alphabet is "Red i zakon sestara reda Svetog Dominika", from 1345. Arabic alphabet formerly was used by Bosnian Muslims; Greek writing recently is out of use there, and Arabic and Glagolitic persisted so far partly in religious liturgies.
Today, it is written in both the Latin and Cyrillic scripts. Serbian and Bosnian variants use both alphabets, while Croatian uses the Latin only.
The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was revised by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić in the 19th century.
The Croatian Latin alphabet (Gajica) followed suit shortly afterwards, when Ljudevit Gaj defined it as standard Latin with five extra letters that had diacritics, apparently borrowing much from Czech, but also from Polish, and inventing the unique digraphs "lj", "nj" and "dž".These diagraphs are represented as "ļ, ń and ǵ" respectively in the "Rječnik hrvatskog ili srpskog jezika", published by the former Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb.[93] The latter diagraphs, however, are unused in the literary standard of the language. All in all, this makes Serbo-Croatian the only Slavic language to officially use both the Latin and Cyrillic scripts, albeit the Latin version is more commonly used.
In both cases, spelling is phonetic and spellings in the two alphabets map to each other one-to-one:
Latin to Cyrillic
A a B b C c Č č Ć ć D d Dž dž Đ đ E e F f G g H h I i J j K k
А а Б б Ц ц Ч ч Ћ ћ Д д Џ џ Ђ ђ Е е Ф ф Г г Х х И и Ј ј К к
L l Lj lj M m N n Nj nj O o P p R r S s Š š T t U u V v Z z Ž ž
Л л Љ љ М м Н н Њ њ О о П п Р р С с Ш ш Т т У у В в З з Ж ж
Cyrillic to Latin
А а Б б В в Г г Д д Ђ ђ Е е Ж ж З з И и Ј ј К к Л л Љ љ М м
A a B b V v G g D d Đ đ E e Ž ž Z z I i J j K k L l Lj lj M m
Н н Њ њ О о П п Р р С с Т т Ћ ћ У у Ф ф Х х Ц ц Ч ч Џ џ Ш ш
N n Nj nj O o P p R r S s T t Ć ć U u F f H h C c Č Č Dž dž Š š
Sample collation
Latin collation order Cyrillic
collation
order
Latin Cyrillic
equivalent
Ina Ина Ина
Инверзија
Инјекција
Иње
Injekcija Инјекција
Inverzija Инверзија
Inje Иње
The digraphs Lj, Nj and Dž represent distinct phonemes and are considered to be single letters. In crosswords, they are put into a single square, and in sorting, lj follows l and nj follows n, except in a few words where the individual letters are pronounced separately, for instance "nadživ(j)eti" (to outlive), which is composed of the prefix nad- and the verb živ(j)eti. The Cyrillic version avoids the ambiguity by providing a unique single letter for each sound.
Đ used to be commonly written as Dj on typewriters, but that practice led to too many ambiguities. It is also used on car license plates. Today Dj is often used again in place of Đ on the Internet as a replacement due to the lack of installed Serbo-Croat keyboard layouts.
Phonology

Main article: Serbo-Croatian phonology
Vowels
The Serbo-Croatian vowel system is simple, with only five vowels in Štokavian. All vowels are monophthongs. The oral vowels are as follows:
Latin script Cyrillic script IPA Description English approximation
a а /a/ open central unrounded father
e е /ɛ/ open-mid front unrounded den
i и /i/ close front unrounded seek
o о /ɔ/ open-mid back rounded lord
u у /u/ closed back rounded pool
The vowels can be short or long, but the phonetic quality doesn't change depending on the length. In a word, vowels can be long in the stressed syllable and the syllables following it, never in the ones preceding it.
Consonants
The consonant system is more complicated, and its characteristic features are series of affricate and palatal consonants. As in English, voice is phonemic, but aspiration is not.
Latin script Cyrillic script IPA Description English approximation
trill
r р /r/ alveolar trill rolled (vibrating) r as in carramba
approximants
v в /ʋ/ labiodental approximant roughly between vortex and war
j ј /j/ palatal approximant year
laterals
l л /l/ lateral alveolar approximant light
lj љ /ʎ/ palatal lateral approximant roughly battalion
nasals
m м /m/ bilabial nasal man
n н /n/ alveolar nasal not
nj њ /ɲ/ palatal nasal news or American canyon
fricatives
f ф /f/ voiceless labiodental fricative five
s с /s/ voiceless alveolar fricative some
z з /z/ voiced alveolar fricative zero
š ш /ʃ/ voiceless postalveolar fricative sharp
ž ж /ʒ/ voiced postalveolar fricative television
h х /x/ voiceless velar fricative loch
affricates
c ц /ts/ voiceless alveolar affricate pots
dž џ /dʒ/ voiced postalveolar affricate roughly eject
č ч /tʃ/ voiceless postalveolar affricate roughly check
đ ђ /dʑ/ voiced alveolo-palatal affricate roughly Jews
ć ћ /tɕ/ voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate roughly choose
plosives
b б /b/ voiced bilabial plosive book
p п /p/ voiceless bilabial plosive top
d д /d/ voiced alveolar plosive dog
t т /t/ voiceless alveolar plosive it
g г /ɡ/ voiced velar plosive good
k к /k/ voiceless velar plosive duck
In consonant clusters all consonants are either voiced or voiceless. All the consonants are voiced (if the last consonant is normally voiced) or voiceless (if the last consonant is normally voiceless). This rule does not apply to approximants – a consonant cluster may contain voiced approximants and voiceless consonants; as well as to foreign words (Washington would be transcribed as VašinGton/ВашинГтон), personal names and when consonants are not inside of one syllable.
/r/ can be syllabic, playing the role of the syllable nucleus in certain words (occasionally, it can even have a long accent). For example, the tongue-twister navrh brda vrba mrda involves four words with syllabic /r/. A similar feature exists in Czech, Slovak, Macedonian and Serbian. Very rarely other sonorants can be syllabic, like /l/ (in bicikl), /ʎ/ (surname Štarklj), /n/ (unit njutn), as well as /m/ and /ɲ/ in slang.[citation needed]
Pitch accent
Further information: Pitch accent#Serbo-Croatian and Serbo-Croatian phonology#Pitch accent
Apart from Slovene, Serbo-Croatian is the only Slavic language with a pitch accent (simple tone) system. This feature is present in some other Indo-European languages, such as Swedish, Norwegian, Limburgish, Spanish spoken in Chile and Colombia (to a lesser extent), and Ancient Greek. Standard Neoštokavian Serbo-Croatian, which is used a basis for standard Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian, has four "accents", which involve either a rising or falling tone on either long or short vowels, with optional post-tonic lengths:
Serbo-Croatian accent system
Slavicist
symbol IPA
symbol Description
e [e] non-tonic short vowel
ē [eː] non-tonic long vowel
è [ě] short vowel with rising tone
é [ěː] long vowel with rising tone
ȅ [ê] short vowel with falling tone
ȇ [êː] long vowel with falling tone
The tone stressed vowels can be approximated in English with set vs setting? said in isolation for a short tonic e, or leave vs leaving? for a long tonic i, due to the prosody of final stressed syllables in English.
General accent rules in the standard language:
Monosyllabic words may have only a falling tone (or no accent at all – enclitics);
Falling tone may occur only on the first syllable of polysyllabic words;
Accent can never occur on the last syllable of polysyllabic words.
There are no other rules for accent placement, thus the accent of every word must be learned individually; furthermore, in inflection, accent shifts are common, both in type and position (the so-called "mobile paradigms"). The second rule is not strictly obeyed, especially in borrowed words.
Comparative and historical linguistics offers some clues for memorising the accent position: If one compares many standard Serbo-Croatian words to e.g. cognate Russian words, the accent in the Serbo-Croatian word will be one syllable before the one in the Russian word, with the rising tone. Historically, the rising tone appeared when the place of the accent shifted to the preceding syllable (the so-called "Neoštokavian retraction"), but the quality of this new accent was different – its melody still "gravitated" towards the original syllable. Most Štokavian dialects (Neoštokavian) dialects underwent this shift, but Čakavian, Kajkavian and the Old Štokavian dialects did not.
Accent diacritics are not used in the ordinary orthography, but only in the linguistic or language-learning literature (e.g. dictionaries, orthography and grammar books). However, there are very few minimal pairs where an error in accent can lead to misunderstanding.
Orthography

Serbo-Croatian orthography is supposed to be almost completely phonetic. Thus, every word is allegedly spelled exactly as it is pronounced. In practice, the writing system does not take into account allophones which occur as a result of interaction between words:
bit će – pronounced biće (and only written separately in Croatian)
od toga – pronounced otoga (in many vernaculars)
iz čega – pronounced iščega (in many vernaculars)
Also, there are some exceptions, mostly applied to foreign words and compounds, that favor morphological/etymological over phonetic spelling:
postdiplomski (postgraduate) – pronounced pozdiplomski
One systemic exception is that the consonant clusters ds and dš do not change into ts and tš (although d tends to be unvoiced in normal speech in such clusters):
predstava (show)
odšteta (damages)
Only a few words are intentionally "misspelled", mostly in order to resolve ambiguity:
šeststo (six hundred) – pronounced šesto (to avoid confusion with "šesto" [sixth])
prstni (adj., finger) – pronounced prsni (to avoid confusion with "prsni" [adj., chest])
Demographics


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The total number of persons who declared their native language as either 'Bosnian', 'Croatian', 'Serbian', 'Montenegrin', or 'Serbo-Croatian' in countries of the region is about 16 million.
Serbian is spoken by about 9 million mostly in Serbia (6.7m), Bosnia and Herzegovina (1.4m), and Montenegro (0.4m). Serbian minorities are found in the Republic of Macedonia and in Romania. In Serbia, there are about 760,000 second-language speakers of Serbian, including Hungarians in Vojvodina and the 400,000 estimated Roma. Familiarity of Kosovo Albanians with Serbian in Kosovo varies depending on age and education, and exact numbers are not available..
Croatian is spoken by roughly 4.7 million including some 575,000 in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A small Croatian minority lives in Italy known as Molise Croats have somewhat preserved traces of the Croatian language. In Croatia, 170,000 mostly Italians and Hungarians use it as a second language.
Bosnian is spoken by 2.2 million people, chiefly Bosniaks, including about 220,000 in Serbia and Montenegro.
Notion of Montenegrin as a separate standard from Serbian is relatively recent. In the 2003 census, around 150,000 Montenegrins, of the country's 620,000, declared Montenegrin as their native language. That figure is likely to increase since, due to the country's independence and strong institutional backing of Montenegrin language.
Serbo-Croatian is also a second language of many Slovenians and Macedonians, especially those born during the time of Yugoslavia. According to the 2002 Census, Serbo-Croatian and its variants have the largest number of speakers of the minority languages in Slovenia.[94]
Outside of the Balkans, there are over 2 million native speakers of the language(s), especially in countries which are frequent targets of immigration, such as Australia, Austria, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Sweden and the United States.
See also

Language portal
Linguistics portal
Bosnia and Herzegovina portal
Croatia portal
Montenegro portal
Serbia portal
Differences between Serbo-Croatian standard varieties
Language secessionism in Serbo-Croatian
Mutual intelligibility
Serbo-Croatian relative clauses
Pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language
Serbo-Croatian grammar
Serbo-Croatian kinship
Serbo-Croatian phonology
Shtokavian dialect
South Slavic dialect continuum
Standard language
Notes and references

Notes:
^ a b Kosovo is the subject of a territorial dispute between the Republic of Serbia and the self-proclaimed Republic of Kosovo. The latter declared independence on 17 February 2008, while Serbia claims it as part of its own sovereign territory. Its independence is recognised by 92 out of 193 UN member states.
References:
^ "Serbo-Croatian". Ethnologue.
^ "Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo". p. 2. Retrieved 2012-08-17.
^ Kordić, Snježana (2006) [1st pub. 1997]. Serbo-Croatian. Languages of the World/Materials ; 148. Munich & Newcastle: Lincom Europa. p. 71. ISBN 3-89586-161-8. OCLC 37959860. OL2863538W. Lay summary.
^ Browne, Wayles (1993). "Serbo-Croat". In Comrie, Bernard & Corbett, Greville G. The Slavonic Languages. Routledge language family descriptions. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 306-387. ISBN 0415047552. OCLC 24796613.
^ a b Thomas, Paul-Louis; Osipov, Vladimir (2012) (in French). Grammaire du bosniaque, croate, monténégrin, serbe [Grammar of Bosniakian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian]. Collection de grammaires de l'Institut d'études slaves ; vol. 8. Paris: Institut d'études slaves. p. 624. ISBN 9782720404900. OCLC 805026664. Lay summary.
^ bosanski/crnogorski/hrvatski/srpski, Cyrillic: српскохрватски или хрватскосрпски; босански/црногорски/хрватски/српски
^ Blum 2002, pp. 8, 134.
^ a b Bunčić, Daniel (2008). "Die (Re-)Nationalisierung der serbokroatischen Standards [The (Re-)Nationalisation of Serbo-Croatian Standards]". In Kempgen, Sebastian (in German). Deutsche Beiträge zum 14. Internationalen Slavistenkongress, Ohrid, 2008. Welt der Slaven. Munich: Otto Sagner. p. 93. OCLC 238795822.
^ Kordić, Snježana (2009). "Policentrični standardni jezik [Polycentric Standard Language]". In Badurina, Lada; Pranjković, Ivo; Silić, Josip (in Serbo-Croatian). Jezični varijeteti i nacionalni identiteti. Zagreb: Disput. pp. 83-108. ISBN 978-953-260-054-4. OCLC 437306433. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2012.
^ Pohl 1996, p. 219.
^ Kordić, Snježana (2004). "Pro und kontra: "Serbokroatisch" heute [Pro and contra: "Serbo-Croatian" nowadays]". In Krause, Marion; Sappok, Christian (in German). Slavistische Linguistik 2002: Referate des XXVIII. Konstanzer Slavistischen Arbeitstreffens, Bochum 10.-12. September 2002. Munich: Otto Sagner. pp. 97-148. ISBN 3-87690-885-X4. OCLC 56198470. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
^ Gröschel 2009, pp. 61-84, 140-151.
^ Leto, Marija Rita (2001). "Il purismo linguistico in Croazia come forma di censura". In Goldoni, Annalisa; Martinez, Carlo (in Italian). Le lettere rubate: forme, funzioni e ragioni della censura. Napoli: Liguori. p. 59. OCLC 53340595.
^ a b Kafadar, Enisa (2009). "Bosnisch, Kroatisch, Serbisch – Wie spricht man eigentlich in Bosnien-Herzegowina? [Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian – How do people really speak in Bosnia-Herzegovina?]". In Henn-Memmesheimer, Beate; Franz, Joachim (in German). Die Ordnung des Standard und die Differenzierung der Diskurse; Teil 1. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. p. 103. OCLC 699514676. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
^ Thomas 2003, pp. 314, 318.
^ Blum 2002, pp. 130-132.
^ Kordić, Snježana (2009). "Plurizentrische Sprachen, Ausbausprachen, Abstandsprachen und die Serbokroatistik [Pluricentric languages, Ausbau languages, Abstand languages and the Serbo-Croatistics]" (in German). Zeitschrift für Balkanologie 45 (2): 213-214. ISSN 0044-2356. OCLC 1643552. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
^ "The same language [Croatian] is referred to by different names, Serbian (srpski), Serbo-Croat (in Croatia: hrvatsko-srpski), Bosnian (bosanski), based on political and ethnic grounds. [...] the names Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian are politically determined and refer to the same language with possible slight variations." (Brown & Anderson 2006, p. 294.)
^ Kordić, Snježana (2011). "Sprach(en)politik: Aufklären oder verschleiern? [Language policy: to clarify or to obscure?]". In Gavrić, Saša (in German). Sprach(en)politik in Bosnien und Herzegowina und im deutschsprachigen Raum: Sammelband zur gleichnamigen Konferenz vom 22. März 2011 in Sarajevo. Sarajevo: Goethe-Institut Bosnien und Herzegowina ; Österreichische Botschaft ; Schweizer Botschaft. p. 71. ISBN 978-9958-1959-1-4. OCLC 774073344. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
^ Brozović, Dalibor (1992). "Serbo-Croatian as a pluricentric language". In Clyne, Michael G. Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Contributions to the sociology of language 62. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 347-380. OCLC 24668375.
^ Ammon 1995, p. 46.
^ Kordić, Snježana (2008). "Nationale Varietäten der serbokroatischen Sprache [National Varieties of Serbo-Croatian]". In Golubović, Biljana; Raecke, Jochen (in German). Bosnisch - Kroatisch - Serbisch als Fremdsprachen an den Universitäten der Welt. Die Welt der Slaven, Sammelbände – Sborniki ; vol. 31. Munich: Otto Sagner. p. 95. ISBN 978-3-86688-032-0. OCLC 244788988. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
^ Lencek 1976, p. 46.
^ Pohl 1996, pp. 209-210.
^ Lencek 1976, p. 49.
^ Brown & Anderson 2006, p. 259.
^ "In 1993 the authorities in Sarajevo adopted a new language law (Službeni list Republike Bosne i Hercegovine, 18/93): In the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Ijekavian standard literary language of the three constitutive nations is officially used, designated by one of the three terms: Bosnian, Serbian, Croatian." (Bugarski 2004, p. 142.)
^ Brozović, Dalibor (1988). "Jezik, srpskohrvatski/hrvatskosrpski, hrvatski ili srpski [Language, Serbo-Croatian/Croato-Serbian, Croatian or Serbian : Extract From the Second Edition of the Encyclopedia of Yugoslavia]" (in Serbo-Croatian). Jezik, srpskohrvatski/hrvatskosrpski, hrvatski ili srpski : izvadak iz II izdanja Enciklopedije Jugoslavije. Zagreb: Jugoslavenski Leksikografski zavod "Miroslav Krleža". p. 4. ISBN 86-7053-014-7. OCLC 645757653.
^ Richter Malabotta, Melita (2004). "Semantics of War in Former Yugoslavia". In Busch, Brigitta; Kelly-Holmes, Helen. Language, Discourse and Borders in the Yugoslav Successor States. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. p. 81. OCLC 803615012.
^ Mappes-Niediek 2005, p. 30.
^ Kordić, Snježana (2010). "Ideologija nacionalnog identiteta i nacionalne kulture [The ideology of national identity and of national culture]". In Ajdačić, Dejan; Lazarević Di Đakomo, Persida (in Serbo-Croatian). U čast Pera Jakobsena: zbornik radova. Studia in honorem ; vol. 1. Beograd: SlovoSlavia. pp. 225-239. ISBN 978-86-87807-02-0. OCLC 723062357. Archived from the original on 23 August 2012. Retrieved 23 August 2012.
^ Obst, Ulrich (2004). "Zum genitivus qualitatis und zu alternativen Möglichkeiten in den drei ’Buddenbrooks’-Übersetzungen aus dem kroatischen und serbischen Sprachgebiet". In Okuka, Miloš; Schweier, Ulrich (in German). Festschrift für Peter Rehder zum 65. Geburtstag. Welt der Slaven ; vol. 21. Munich: Otto Sagner. p. 212. OCLC 55018584.
^ Tomasz Kamusella. The Politics of Language and Nationalism in Modern Central Europe. Palgrave Macmillan, 2008. pp. 228, 297.
^ Kordić, Snježana (2010). "Moderne Nationalbezeichnungen und Texte aus vergangenen Jahrhunderten [Modern nation names and texts from passed centuries]" (in German). Zeitschrift für Balkanologie 46 (1): 40-41. ISSN 0044-2356. Archived from the original on 23 August 2012. Retrieved 23 August 2012.
^ Greenberg 2004, p. 24.
^ a b Greenberg 2004, p. 115.
^ a b Jonke, Ljudevit (1968/69). "Razvoj hrvatskoga književnog jezika u 20. stoljeću [Development of the Croatian language in the 20th century]" (in Serbo-Croatian). Jezik 16 (1): 18.
^ Kordić 2010, pp. 303-304.
^ a b Babić, Stjepan (2004) (in Serbo-Croatian). Hrvanja hrvatskoga [Croatian Language Wrestling]. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. p. 36. ISBN 953-0-61428-4.
^ Milutinović, Zoran (2011). "Review of the Book Jezik i nacionalizam". The Slavonic and East European Review 89 (3): 522–523. Archived from the original on 7 July 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2012.
^ Jonke, Ljudevit (1955/56). "Drugi i treći sastanak Pravopisne komisije [The second and third meeting of The Orthographic Commission]" (in Serbo-Croatian). Jezik 4 (2): 59.
^ Jonke, Ljudevit (1961/62). "Pravopis hrvatskosrpskoga književnog jezika [Serbo-Croatian Spelling-Book]" (in Serbo-Croatian). Jezik 9 (2): 57-59.
^ "SOS ili tek alibi za nasilje nad jezikom [SOS or nothing but an alibi for violence against language]" (in Croatian). Zagreb: Forum. 16 March 2012. pp. 38–39. ISSN 1848-204X. Archived from the original on 7 July 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2012.
^ Gröschel 2009, p. 72.
^ Mappes-Niediek 2005, pp. 18, 64.
^ Blum 2002, pp. 41-42.
^ a b c d Gak, Vladimir G. (1989). "K tipologii form jazykovoj politiki [Towards a typology of language policy]" (in Russian). Voprosy jazykoznanija 5: 122-123.
^ Blum 2002, pp. 47-48.
^ Gröschel, Bernhard (2003). "Postjugoslavische Amtssprachenregelungen - Soziolinguistische Argumente gegen die Einheitlichkeit des Serbokroatischen? [Post-Yugoslav Official Languages Regulations – Sociolinguistic Arguments Against Consistency of Serbo-Croatian?]" (in German). Srpski jezik 8 (1-2): 160-161. ISSN 0354-9259.
^ Blum 2002, p. 65.
^ Blum 2002, p. 81.
^ Blum 2002, pp. 73-79.
^ Blum 2002, pp. 69-80.
^ Kordić 2010, pp. 291-292.
^ Busch, Brigitta; Kelly-Holmes, Helen, eds. (2004). "Semantics of War in Former Yugoslavia". Language, Discourse and Borders in the Yugoslav Successor States. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. pp. 51, 54. OCLC 803615012.
^ Kordić 2010, pp. 294-295.
^ Gröschel 2009, p. 38.
^ Kordić 2010, p. 299.
^ Ammon 1995, pp. 484, 494-497.
^ "die Tatsache, dass Sprachen (in ihrem Prestige, ihrer Erlernbarkeit etc.) nicht gleich sind und auch per Gesetz nicht gleich gemacht werden können" (Blum 2002, p. 170.)
^ Thomas 2003, p. 325.
^ McLennan, Sean (1996). "Sociolinguistic Analysis of "Serbo-Croatian" [Sociolinguistic Analysis of ’Serbo-Croatian’]". Calgary Working Papers in Linguistics 18: 107. ISSN 0823-0579. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
^ Pohl 1996, p.219.
^ a b Gröschel 2009, pp. 180-181.
^ Blum 2002, pp. 125-126.
^ 2006 Constitution of Serbia
^ , 2007, http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Montenegro#Article_13_.28Language_and_alphabet.29, "The official language in Montenegro shall be Montenegrin.[...]Serbian, Bosniac, Albanian and Croatian shall also be in the official use."
^ Slovo o srpskom jeziku/Decree on the Serbian language
^ Kordić’s publications in Književna republika
^ Petković, Nikola (5 September 2010). "Mrsko zrcalo pred licima jezikoslovaca [Nasty mirrow in front of linguists’ faces]" (in Serbo-Croatian). Rijeka: Novi list. p. 7 in the arts section Mediteran. Archived from the original on 5 July 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2012.
^ Šnajder, Slobodan (10 October 2010). "Lingvistička bojna [Linguistic battle]" (in Serbo-Croatian). Rijeka: Novi list. p. 6 in the arts section Mediteran. Archived from the original on 5 July 2012. Retrieved 6 July 2012.
^ Kordić, Snježana (2003). "Demagogija umjesto znanosti (odgovor Daliboru Brozoviću) [Demagogy instead of science (response to Dalibor Brozović)]" (in Serbo-Croatian). Književna republika 1 (7-8): 176-202. ISSN 1334-1057. Archived from the original on 23 August 2012. Retrieved 23 August 2012.
^ Kordić, Snježana (2004). "Autizam hrvatske filologije (odgovor Ivi Pranjkoviću) [Autism of Croatian philology (response to Ivo Pranjković)]" (in Serbo-Croatian). Književna republika 2 (7-8): 254-280. ISSN 1334-1057. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2012.
^ Mandić, Igor (21 November 2010). "Svojom polemikom možda pokušava izbrisati naš identitet... Što, zapravo, hoće ta žena? [She is perhaps trying to destroy our identity by polemicising... What does that woman really want?]" (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb: Jutarnji list. p. 19. Archived from the original on 7 July 2012. Retrieved 12 July 2012.
^ Kordić 2010
^ Gröschel 2009
^ Kordić, Snježana (2009). "Svijet o nama: Bernhard Gröschel, Das Serbokroatische zwischen Linguistik und Politik [About us – World point of view: Bernhard Gröschel, Serbo-Croatian Between Linguistics and Politics]" (in Serbo-Croatian). Književna republika 7 (10-12): 316-330. ISSN 1334-1057. Archived from the original on 23 August 2012. Retrieved 23 August 2012.
^ Trudgill, Peter (2003). A glossary of sociolinguistics. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. p. 119. OCLC 50768041.
^ Kordić, Snježana (2007). "La langue croate, serbe, bosniaque et monténégrine [Croatian, Serbian, Bosniakian, and Montenegrin]". In Madelain, Anne (in French). Au sud de l'Est. Paris: Non Lieu. p. 74. ISBN 978-2-35270-036-4. OCLC 182916790. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 12 August 2012.
^ Brozović, Dalibor (2002). "Europske integracije i hrvatski jezik [European integrations and the Croatian language]" (in Serbo-Croatian). Jezik 49 (4): 124.
^ Kloss, Heinz (1976). "Abstandsprachen und Ausbausprachen [Abstand-languages and Ausbau-languages]". In Göschel, Joachim; Nail, Norbert; van der Els, Gaston. Zur Theorie des Dialekts: Aufsätze aus 100 Jahren Forschung. Zeitschrift fur Dialektologie and Linguistik, Beihefte, n.F., Heft 16. Wiesbaden: F. Steiner. p. 303. OCLC 2598722.
^ Pohl 1996, p. 214.
^ Kordić, Snježana (2004). "Le serbo-croate aujourd'hui: entre aspirations politiques et faits linguistiques [Serbo-Croatian nowadays: between political aspirations and linguistic facts]" (in French). Revue des études slaves 75 (1): 34-36. ISSN 0080-2557. OCLC 754207802. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 20 August 2012.
^ Blum 2002, p. 134.
^ Haji Omar, Asmah (1992). "Malay as a pluricentric language". In Clyne, Michael G. Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Contributions to the sociology of language 62. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 401-419. ISBN 3-11-012855-1. OCLC 24668375.
^ Dua, Hans Raj (1992). "Hindi-Urdu as a pluricentric language". In Clyne, Michael G. Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Contributions to the sociology of language 62. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 381-400. ISBN 3-11-012855-1. OCLC 24668375.
^ Ammon 1995, pp. 154-174.
^ a b Mladenovic. Kratka istorija srpskog književnog jezika. Beograd 2004, 67
^ S. Zekovic & B. Cimeša: Elementa montenegrina, Chrestomatia 1/90. CIP, Zagreb 1991
^ Official communique, 27 December 2004, Serbian Ministry of Education (Serbian)
^ Opštinski službeni glasnik opštine Novi PazarPDF (65.8 KiB), 30 April 2002, page 1
^ E.g., big coastal Croatian cities Rijeka and Split together with their hinterland become basically completely Štokavianised during the 20th century, formerly being Čakavian-speaking urban centres.
^ (Croatian) Gramatika hrvatskosrpskoga jezika, Group of Authors (Ivan Brabec, Mate Hraste and Sreten Živković), Zagreb, 1968.
^ "Raziskava Položaj in status pripadnikov narodov nekdanje Jugoslavije vRS.pdf" (in Slovene) (pdf).
Ammon, Ulrich (1995) (in German). Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz: das Problem der nationalen Varietäten [German Language in Germany, Austria and Switzerland: The Problem of National Varieties]. Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter. p. 575. OCLC 33981055.
Blum, Daniel (2002) (in German). Sprache und Politik : Sprachpolitik und Sprachnationalismus in der Republik Indien und dem sozialistischen Jugoslawien (1945-1991) [Language and Policy: Language Policy and Linguistic Nationalism in the Republic of India and the Socialist Yugoslavia (1945-1991)]. Beiträge zur Südasienforschung ; vol. 192. Würzburg: Ergon. p. 200. ISBN 3-89913-253-X. OCLC 51961066.
Brown, Edward Keith; Anderson, Anne, eds. (2006). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0-08-044299-4. OCLC 3945869.
Bugarski, Ranko; Hawkesworth, Celia, eds. (2006). Language in the Former Yugoslav Lands. Bloomington: Slavica Publishers. p. 325. ISBN 0-89357-298-5. OCLC 52858529.
Greenberg, Robert David (2004). Language and Identity in the Balkans: Serbo-Croatian and Its Disintegration. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. p. 188. ISBN 0-19-925815-5.
Gröschel, Bernhard (2009) (in German). Das Serbokroatische zwischen Linguistik und Politik: mit einer Bibliographie zum postjugoslavischen Sprachenstreit [Serbo-Croatian Between Linguistics and Politics: With a Bibliography of the Post-Yugoslav Language Dispute]. Lincom Studies in Slavic Linguistics ; vol 34. Munich: Lincom Europa. p. 451. ISBN 978-3-929075-79-3. LCCN 2009473660. OCLC 428012015. OL15295665W.
Kordić, Snježana (2010) (in Serbo-Croatian). Jezik i nacionalizam [Language and Nationalism]. Rotulus Universitas. Zagreb: Durieux. p. 430. ISBN 978-953-188-311-5. LCCN 2011520778. OCLC 729837512. OL15270636W. Archived from the original on 8 July 2012. Retrieved 21 August 2012.
Lencek, Rado (1976). "A few remarks for the history of the term 'Serbocroatian' language". Zbornik za filologiju i lingvistiku 19 (1): 45-53. ISSN 1514-6143.
Mappes-Niediek, Norbert (2005) (in German). Die Ethno-Falle: der Balkan-Konflikt und was Europa daraus lernen kann [The Ethnic Trap: the Balkan conflict and what Europe can learn from it]. Berlin: Christoph Links Verlag. p. 224. ISBN 978-3-86153-367-2. OCLC 61665869.
Pohl, Hans-Dieter (1996). "Serbokroatisch - Rückblick und Ausblick [Serbo-Croatian – Looking backward and forward]". In Ohnheiser, Ingeborg (in German). Wechselbeziehungen zwischen slawischen Sprachen, Literaturen und Kulturen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart : Akten der Tagung aus Anlaß des 25jährigen Bestehens des Instituts für Slawistik an der Universität Innsbruck, Innsbruck, 25. - 27. Mai 1995. Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Kulturwissenschaft, Slavica aenipontana ; vol. 4. Innsbruck: Non Lieu. pp. 205-219. OCLC 243829127.
Thomas, Paul-Louis (2003). "Le serbo-croate (bosniaque, croate, monténégrin, serbe): de l’étude d’une langue à l’identité des langues [Serbo-Croatian (Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, Serbian): from the study of a language to the identity of languages]" (in French). Revue des études slaves 74 (2-3): 311-325. ISSN 0080-2557. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
Further reading

Banac, Ivo: Main Trends in the Croatian Language Question, Yale University Press, 1984
Branko Franolić, Mateo Zagar: A Historical Outline of Literary Croatian & The Glagolitic Heritage of Croatian Culture, Erasmus & CSYPN, London & Zagreb 2008 ISBN 978-953-6132-80-5
Franolić, Branko: A Historical Survey of Literary Croatian, Nouvelles éditions latines, Paris, 1984.
Franolić, Branko: Language Policy in Yugoslavia with special reference to Croatian, Paris, Nouvelles Editions Latines 1988
Ivić, Pavle: Die serbokroatischen Dialekte, the Hague, 1958
Matasović, Ranko (2008) (in Croatian), Poredbenopovijesna gramatika hrvatskoga jezika, Zagreb: Matica hrvatska, ISBN 978-953-150-840-7
Magner, Thomas F.: Zagreb Kajkavian dialect. Pennsylvania State University, 1966
Magner, Thomas F.: Introduction to the Croatian and Serbian Language (Revised ed.). Pennsylvania State University, 1991
Murray Despalatović, Elinor: Ljudevit Gaj and the Illyrian Movement. Columbia University Press, 1975.
Zekovic, Sreten & Cimeša, Boro: Elementa montenegrina, Chrestomatia 1/90. CIP, Zagreb 1991
External links

Serbo-Croatian edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Ethnologue – 15th edition of the Ethnologue (released 2005) shows changes in this area:
Previous Ethnologue entry for Serbo-Croatian
Ethnologue 15th Edition report on south/western Slavic languages.
Integral text of Novi Sad Agreement (In Serbo-Croatian).
IKI Translate: Translating different dialects of Serbo-Croatian one to another
Serbian and Croatian alphabets at Omniglot.
Juhani Nuorluoto: The Notion of Diasystem in the Central South Slavic Linguistic Area.
Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Or Montenegrin? Or Just 'Our Language'?, Radio Free Europe, February 21, 2009
Browne, Wayles; Alt, Theresa (2004) (PDF), A Handbook of Bosnian, Serbian, and Croatian, SEELRC
USA Foreign Service Institute Serbo-Croatian basic course
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