خاورشناسی یا شرق‌شناسی به رشته‌ای گفته می‌شود که درباره کشورهای شرقی گفتگو می‌کند و درباره شرق قضاوت کرده و واقعیت‌های آن را بررسی و تفسیر می‌کند.

ادوارد سعید در مقدمهٔ کتاب معروف خود، شرق‌شناسی، این مفهوم را این گونه تعریف می‌کند: «خاورشناسی عبارت از نوعی سبک فکری است که بر مبنای یک تمایز شناختی و شناخت‌شناختی است که میان «شرق» و (غالب موارد) «غرب» قرار دارد.»[۱]



پیوند به بیرون [ویرایش]

مدخل در لغت‌نامه دهخدا
خاورشناسی در وبگاه الشیعه
منابع [ویرایش]

↑ سعید، ادوارد، شرق‌شناسی، ترجمهٔ عبدالرحیم گواهی، تهران: دفتر نشر فرهنگ اسلامی، ۱۳۷۷، صص ۱۵-۱۶
این یک نوشتار خُرد پیرامون فرهنگ است. با گسترش آن به ویکی‌پدیا کمک کنید.
رده‌های صفحه: خاورشناسینظریه‌های زیبایی‌شناسی
از ویکی پدیا
قس عربی
الاستشراق ظاهرة هامة وتعتبر دراسة کافّة البنى الثّقافیّة للشّرق من وجهة نظر غربی، وتستخدم کلمة الاستشراق أیضاً لتدلیل تقلید أو تصویر جانب من الحضارات الشرقیة لدى الرواة والفنانین فی الغرب. المعنى الأخیر هو معنى مهمول ونادر استخدامه، والاستخدام الأغلب هو دراسة الشرق فی العصر الاستعماری ما بین القرن الثامن عشر والتاسع عشر. لذلک صارت کلمة الاستشراق تدل على المفهوم السلبی وتنطوی على التفاسیر المضرّة والقدیمة للحضارات الشرقیة والناس الشرقیین. وجهة النظر هذه مبیَّنة فی کتاب إدوارد سعید الاستشراق (المنشور سنة 1978).
محتویات [أخف]
1 مراحل الاستشراق
2 تاریخ الاستشراق
3 المستشرقون الحقیقیون
4 وصلات خارجیة
[عدل]مراحل الاستشراق

من أبرز المراحل الّتی یُقسّم إلیها الاستشراق ما ذهب إلیه الدّکتور المبروک المنصوری فی کتابه "الدّراسات الدّینیّة المعاصرة من المرکزیّة الغربیّة إلى النّسبیّة الثّقافیّة: الاستشراق، القرآن، الهویّة والقیم الدیّنیّة"، إذ قسّم الاستشراق إلى ثلاث مراحل أساسیّة هی: الاستشراق الاستعماری: Colonial Orientalism: ویشمل کلّ ما أٌنتج من بدایة تشکّل هذا التوجّه مع الحرکة الرّومانسیّة الغربیّة إلى حوالى 1960. الاستشراق ما بعد الاستعمارای: Post Colonial Orientalism: وهو التوجّه الّذی تشکّل فی المرحلة ما بعد الاستعماریّة. ویرتکز أساسا على الجانب الثّقافیّ واللّغویّ وقد تلبّس لبوسا جدیدا. الاستشراق الجدید: New Orientalism: وهو التیّار الّذی تشکّل فی بدایة هذا القرن. وقد دشّنه کریستوف لکسنبرغ بکتابه "القراءة السّریانیّة الآرامیّة للقرآن" [1].
[عدل]تاریخ الاستشراق

من الصعب أن نکون دقیقین عن أصل الفرق بین الغرب والشرق. لکن ازدهار المسیحیة والإسلام خلق خلاف حضاری کبیر بین أوروبا المسیحیة والشرق وشمال أفریقیا الإسلامی. فی العصور الوسطى کان الأوروبیین المسیحیین یرون المسلمین کأعداء جهنمیین لهم. وکان معرفة الأوروبیین للحضارات أبعد شرقاً من الشرق الإسلامی أکثر خیالاً. ولکن کان هناک معرفة قلیلة للحضارات الهندیة والصینیة من حیث کان تأتی سلع غالیة مثل السیرامیک والحریر. وبکثرة الحملات الاستعماریة والاستکشافیة صار هناک تمییز بین الحضارات الغیر کاتبة، مثل فی أفریقیا والامیرکاتین، والحضارات الکاتبة والمثقفة فی الشرق.
فی القرن الثامن عشر، المفکرین المنورین یصفون أحیاناً جوانب من الحضارات الشرقیة کأحسن من الغرب المسیحی. مثلاً: فولتیر روَّج البحث والدراسة عن الزردشتیة، فی أنها دیانة تدعم الربوبیة العقلانیة أحسن عن المسیحیة. آخرین مجدوا التساهل الدینی فی الشرق الإسلامی بدلاً من الغرب المسیحی، أو منزلة العلم فی الصین والشرق عامةً. مع ترجمة الافیستا واکتشاف اللغات الهندوروبیة، وضِّح الاتصال بین التاریخ الشرقی والغربی القدیم. ولکن صار ذلک الاکتشاف فی وسط المنافسة بین فرنسا وبریطانیا فی الهیمنة على الهند، وکان الاکتشاف متعلق فی فهم الحضارات المستعمرة کی یتحکم علیها المستعمر بسهولة. ولکن الاقتصادیین اللیبیرالیین مثل جیمس میل ذم الأمم الشرقیة بأن الحضارات تلک کانوا ثابتات وفاسدة أو فاسقة. حتى کارل مارکس وصف أسلوب التصنیع الأسیاوی کرافضة التغییر. والمبشرین المسیحیین کانوا یثلبون الدیانات الشرقیة کمجرد خرافات.
فی المعنى الاصطلاحی: علم یقضی بمسائل الشرق ودراسة وتحلیل واقعه، وبعبارة أخرى: هو الدراسات التی تتعلّق بالشرق. أمّا المعنى اللغوی للفظ (شرق) بالإنجلیزیة فهو (بالإنکلیزیة: Orient)، والدول الشرقیة تسمّى (The orient)، والإنسان الشرقی (بالإنکلیزیة: Oriental)، وکلّ من یبحث فی تاریخ الشرق وأحوال أُممه یُدعى (بالإنکلیزیة: Orientalist) أو مستشرق.
الاستشراق

ظهور الاستشراق

یعتبر الاستشراق حدیث الظهور إلاّ أنّ معرفة الشرق وما یتعلّق به من أفکار فذلک یعود إلى الأزمان الغابرة، ویؤیّد ذلک ما عثر علیه فی التنقیبات من النقوش الأثریة على الأحجار، ثمّ تلت ذلک حرکة الاستشراق فی القرون الوسطى، لتؤکّد ذلک من خلال الوقائع التاریخیة والنصوص الجغرافیة، وکتب الأسفار وغیرها.
أمّا ما هو الزمن الذی أخذ فیه الاستشراق نموّه الحقیقی، وأصبح علماً یُدرّس، فیمکن القول: إنّ المساعی التی بذلها الباحثون من إیطالیا وبریطانیا والبرتغال لدراسة الشرق، کان فی القرن الخامس عشر والسادس عشر المیلادی، وکان من بینهم على سبیل المثال توماس هربرت.
کان هذا الباحث الشاب ذکیاً وماهراً، استطاع الوصول إلى السواحل الجنوبیة لإیران قادماً من الهند، بالتنسیق مع السفیر البریطانی آنذاک، فبدأ بکتابة بحوثه حول إیران والإیرانیین. فی القرن السابع عشر والثامن عشر أخذ الاستشراق بالانتشار حتّى أنّ کتاب (کلستان سعدی) طبع لأوّل مرّة فی أوروبا خلال تلک الفترة.
ومنذ أواخر القرن السابع عشر المیلادی أصبحت مدینتا لندن وباریس من المراکز الرئیسیة فی تدریس الاستشراق، ثمّ توسّع حتّى أصبحت أکثر البلدان الأوربیة فی الوقت الحاضر لدیها معاهد خاصّة بتدریس الاستشراق بجمیع أقسامه، وتخرّج فی کلّ عام أعداداً کبیرة من الأساتذة، الذین یغذّون البحوث والدراسات فی أوروبا فی مجال الاستشراق.
بالمدرسه علمو شی تانی'

أقسام البحوث والتخصّصات

یمکن تقسیم البحوث التی کتبها المستشرقون إلى ما یأتی: التاریخ، الاقتصاد، الجغرافیة، اللغة، الآداب، علم الإنسان، الفنون، الأدیان، الفلسفة، علم الآثار.
أمّا الفروع الموجودة فی الجامعات الغربیة، والتی اختصّت بدراسة تاریخ الأُمم السابقة وأحوالها، فهی: فرع دراسة المصریین، فرع دراسة الآشوریین، فرع دراسة الإیرانیین، فرع دراسة العرب، فرع دراسة الأتراک، فرع دراسة الصینیین، فرع دراسة الهنود، فرع دراسة الیابانیین، فرع دراسة السامیین والسومریین.
ملاحظة: توسّع قسم دراسة أحوال المصریین حتّى شمل جمیع أنحاء القارة الأفریقیة.
[عدل]المستشرقون الحقیقیون

إنّ الذین جاءوا لدراسة الشرق کانوا أفراداً متفاوتین، فمنهم من جاء بلباس عسکری أو غیر عسکری، أو بصفة أطباء أو معلّمین، لکنّهم فی حقیقة الأمر قساوسة کان هدفهم التنصیر بالدین المسیحی، وکانوا یتردّدون بکثرة على لبنان وسوریة ومصر. ظلّت حرکة الاستشراق موضع شکّ لدى الکثیر، وبسبب هذا الغموض انقسم الناس نحوها إلى فریقین:
الأول: ینظر إلى المستشرقین بعین الاحترام.
والثانی: ینظر إلیه على العکس من ذلک، لأنّه کان من بینهم أُناس مهّدوا للاستعمار الغربی، وکانوا أداة لتسلّط الغرب على الشرق، کما لا یخفى أنّ منهم جماعة دفعهم شوق التعرّف على الشرق وأسراره، وتحمّلوا فی سبیل ذلک کثیراً من الصعوبات والمشاق. وعلى أیّ حال مهما کانت الأغراض والدوافع التی دفعت للاستشراق، فإنّ الاستشراق شیء، والمستشرقین شیء آخر.
[عدل]وصلات خارجیة

BBC Documentary: on Orientalism-Edward Saidإدوارد سعید یتحدث عن الاستشراق فی فلم وثائقی من إنتاج ال بی بی إن.
^ المبروک المنصوری، الدّراسات الدّینیّة المعاصرة من المرکزیّة الغربیّة إلى النّسبیّة الثّقافیّة: الاستشراق، القرآن، الهویّة والقیم الدّینیّة، تونس، الدّار المتوسّطیّة للنّشر، 2010
هناک المزید من الصور والملفات فی ویکیمیدیا کومنز حول: استشراق
تصنیفات: حرکات ثقافیةنظریات التاریخ استعمار استشراق
قس انگلیسی
Orientalism is a term used by art historians, literary and cultural studies scholars for the imitation or depiction of aspects of Middle Eastern, and East Asian cultures (Eastern cultures) by American and European writers, designers and artists. In particular, Orientalist painting, depicting more specifically "the Middle East",[1] was one of the many specialisms of 19th century Academic art. Since the publication of Edward Said's Orientalism, the term has arguably acquired a negative connotation.
Contents [hide]
1 Meaning of the term
2 Orientalizing styles in Europe
3 Orientalist art
3.1 Pre-19th century
3.2 French Orientalism
3.3 British Orientalism
3.4 Elsewhere
3.4.1 Orientalist artists
4 Literature and music
4.1 Examples
4.1.1 Literature
4.1.2 Opera, ballets, musicals
4.1.3 Orchestral works
4.1.4 Shorter musical pieces
4.1.5 Theatre
4.1.6 Photography
4.1.7 Pulp magazines
4.1.8 Films
4.1.9 Comics
5 Eastern views of the West
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
9.1 Mainly on art
9.2 Literature
10 External links
[edit]Meaning of the term

"Orientalism" refers to the Orient or East,[2] in contrast to the Occident or West, and often, as seen by the West.
"Orientalism" is widely used in art, to refer to the works of the many Western 19th century artists, who specialized in "Oriental" subjects, often drawing on their travels to Western Asia. Artists as well as scholars were already described as "Orientalists" in the 19th century, especially in France, where the term, with a rather dismissive sense, was largely popularized by the critic Jules-Antoine Castagnary.[3] Such disdain did not prevent the Societé des Peintres Orientalistes ("Society of Orientalist Painters") being founded in 1893, with Jean-Léon Gérôme as honorary president;[4] the word was less often used as a term for artists in 19th century England.[5]
Since the 18th century, "Orientalist" has been the traditional term for a scholar of Oriental studies; however the use in English of "Orientalism" to describe the academic subject of "Oriental studies" is rare; the Oxford English Dictionary cites only one such usage, by Lord Byron in 1812. The academic discipline of Oriental studies is now more often called Asian studies.
In 1978, the Palestinian-American scholar Edward Said published his influential and controversial book, Orientalism, which "would forever redefine" the word;[6] he used the term to describe a pervasive Western tradition, both academic and artistic, of prejudiced outsider interpretations of the East, shaped by the attitudes of European imperialism in the 18th and 19th centuries. Said was critical of both this scholarly tradition and of some modern scholars, particularly Bernard Lewis. Said was mainly concerned with literature in the widest sense, especially French literature, and did not cover visual art and Orientalist painting, though others, notably Linda Nochlin, have tried to extend his analysis to art, "with uneven results".[7] Said's work has given rise to a new discipline called Postcolonialism or Postcolonial studies.
[edit]Orientalizing styles in Europe

Further information: Orientalism in early modern France
The Moresque style of Renaissance ornament is a European adaptation of the Islamic arabesque that began in the late 15th century and was to be used in some types of work, such as bookbinding, until almost the present day. Early architectural use of motifs lifted from the Indian subcontinent has sometimes been called "Hindoo style". One of the earliest examples is the façade of Guildhall, London (1788–1789). The style gained momentum in the west with the publication of views of India by William Hodges, and William and Thomas Daniell from about 1795. Examples of "Hindoo" architecture are Sezincote House (c. 1805) in Gloucestershire, built for a nabob returned from Bengal, and the Royal Pavilion in Brighton.
Turquerie, which began as early as the late 15th century, continued until at least the 18th century, and included both the use of "Turkish" styles in the decorative arts, the adoption of Turkish costume at times, and interest in art depicting the Ottoman Empire itself. Venice, the traditional trading partner of the Ottomans, was the earliest centre, with France becoming more prominent in the 18th century.
Chinoiserie is the catch-all term for the fashion for Chinese themes in decoration in Western Europe, beginning in the late 17th century and peaking in waves, especially Rococo Chinoiserie, ca. 1740–1770. From the Renaissance to the 18th century, Western designers attempted to imitate the technical sophistication of Chinese ceramics with only partial success. Early hints of Chinoiserie appeared in the 17th century in nations with active East India companies: England (the British East India Company), Denmark (the Danish East India Company), the Netherlands (the Dutch East India Company) and France (the French East India Company). Tin-glazed pottery made at Delft and other Dutch towns adopted genuine blue-and-white Ming decoration from the early 17th century. Early ceramic wares made at Meissen and other centers of true porcelain imitated Chinese shapes for dishes, vases and teawares (see Chinese export porcelain).
Pleasure pavilions in "Chinese taste" appeared in the formal parterres of late Baroque and Rococo German palaces, and in tile panels at Aranjuez near Madrid. Thomas Chippendale's mahogany tea tables and china cabinets, especially, were embellished with fretwork glazing and railings, ca 1753–70. Sober homages to early Xing scholars' furnishings were also naturalized, as the tang evolved into a mid-Georgian side table and squared slat-back armchairs that suited English gentlemen as well as Chinese scholars. Not every adaptation of Chinese design principles falls within mainstream "chinoiserie." Chinoiserie media included imitations of lacquer and painted tin (tôle) ware that imitated japanning, early painted wallpapers in sheets, and ceramic figurines and table ornaments. Small pagodas appeared on chimneypieces and full-sized ones in gardens. Kew has a magnificent garden pagoda designed by Sir William Chambers. The Wilhelma (1846) in Stuttgart is an example of Moorish Revival architecture. Leighton House, built for the artist Lord Leighton, has a conventional facade but elaborate Arab-style interiors, including original Islamic tiles and other elements as well as Victorian Orientalizing work.
After 1860, Japonisme, sparked by the importing of Japanese woodblock prints, became an important influence in the western arts. In particular, many modern French artists such as Monet and Degas were influenced by the Japanese style. Mary Cassatt, an American artist who worked in France, used elements of combined patterns, flat planes and shifting perspective of Japanese prints in her own images.[8] The paintings of James McNeill Whistler and his "Peacock Room" demonstrated how he used aspects of Japanese tradition and are some of the finest works of the genre. California architects Greene and Greene were inspired by Japanese elements in their design of the Gamble House and other buildings.
In architecture, Egyptian revival architecture was popular mostly in the early and mid-19th century, and Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture or Moorish Revival architecture, covering a variety of general Islamic or Indian features, in the later part of the century; "Saracenic" referred to styles from Arabic-speaking areas. Both were sometimes used in the Orient itself by colonial governments.
[edit]Orientalist art

[edit]Pre-19th century
Depictions of Islamic "Moors" and "Turks" (imprecisely named Muslim groups of North Africa and West Asia) can be found in Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque art. In Biblical scenes in Early Netherlandish painting, secondary figures, especially Romans and Jews, were given exotic costumes that distantly reflected the clothes of the Near East. The Three Magi in Nativity scenes were an especial focus for this. Renaissance Venice had a phase of particular interest in depictions of the Ottoman Empire in painting and prints. Gentile Bellini, who travelled to Constantinople and painted the Sultan, and Vittore Carpaccio were the leading painters. By then the depictions were more accurate, with men typically dressed all in white. The depiction of Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting sometimes draws from Orientalist interest, but more often just reflects the prestige these expensive objects had in the period.[9]
Jean-Étienne Liotard (1702–1789) visited Istanbul and painted numerous pastels of Turkish domestic scenes; he also continued to wear Turkish dress for much of the time when back in Europe. The ambitious Scottish 18th century artist Gavin Hamilton found a solution to the problem of using modern dress, considered unheroic and inelegant, in history painting by using Middle Eastern settings with Europeans wearing local costume, as travellers were advised to do. His huge James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra (1758, now Edinburgh) elevates tourism to the heroic, with the two travellers wearing what look very like togas. Many travellers had themselves painted in exotic Eastern dress on their return, including Lord Byron, as did many who had never left Europe, including Madame de Pompadour.[10] Byron's poetry was highly influential in introducing Europe to the heady cocktail of Romanticism in exotic Oriental settings which was to dominate 19th century Oriental art.
[edit]French Orientalism
French Orientalist painting was transformed by Napoleon's ultimately unsuccessful invasion of Egypt and Syria in 1798-1801, which stimulated great public interest in Egyptology, and was also recorded in subsequent years by Napoleon's court painters, especially Baron Gros, although the Middle Eastern campaign was not one on which he accompanied the army. Two of his most successful paintings, Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa (1804) and Battle of Abukir (1806) focus on the Emperor, as he was by then, but include many Egyptian figures, as does the less effective Napoleon at the Battle of the Pyramids (1810). Girodet's La Révolte du Caire (1810) was another large and prominent example. A well-illustrated Description de l’Égypte was published by the French Government in twenty volumes between 1809 and 1828, concentrating on antiquities.[11]
Eugène Delacroix's first great success, The Massacre at Chios (1824) was painted before he visited the Greece or the East, and followed his friend Théodore Géricault's The Raft of the Medusa in showing a recent incident in distant parts that had aroused public opinion. Greece was still fighting for independence from the Ottomans, and was effectively as exotic as more Muslim parts of the empire. Delacroix followed up with Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi (1827), commemorating a siege of the previous year, and the Death of Sardanapalus, inspired by Lord Byron, which although set in antiquity has been credited with beginning the mixture of sex, violence, lassitude and exoticism which runs through much French Orientalist painting.[12] In 1832 Delacroix finally visited what is now Algeria, recently conquered by the French, and Morocco, as part of a diplomatic mission to the Sultan of Morocco. He was greatly struck by what he saw, comparing the North African way of life to that of the Ancient Romans, and continued to paint subjects from his trip on his return to France. Like many later Orientalist painters, he was frustrated by the difficulty of sketching subjects including women, and many of his scenes feature warriors on horses, or North African Jews. However he was apparently able to get into the women's' quarters or harem of a house to sketch what became The Women of Algiers; few later harem scenes had this claim to authenticity.[13]
When Ingres, the untravelled director of the French Académie de peinture, painted a highly coloured vision of a Turkish bath (illustration, right), he made his eroticized Orient publicly acceptable by his diffuse generalizing of the female forms (who might all have been the same model.) More open sensuality was seen as acceptable in the exotic Orient.[14] This imagery persisted in art into the early 20th century, as evidenced in Matisse's orientalist semi-nudes from his Nice period, and his use of Oriental costumes and patterns. Ingres' pupil Théodore Chassériau (1819–1856) had already achieved success with his nude The Toilette of Esther (1841, Louvre) and equestrian portrait of Ali-Ben-Hamet, Caliph of Constantine and Chief of the Haractas, Followed by his Escort (1846) before he first visited the East, but in later decades the steamship made travel much easier and increasing numbers of artists travelled to the Middle East and beyond, painting a wide range of Oriental scenes.
In many of these works, they portrayed the Orient as exotic, colorful and sensual, not to say stereotyped. Such works typically concentrated on Near-Eastern Islamic cultures, as those were the ones visited by artists as France became more engaged in North Africa. French artists such as Eugène Delacroix, Jean-Léon Gérôme and Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres painted many works depicting Islamic culture, often including lounging odalisques. They stressed both lassitude and visual spectacle. Other scenes, especially in genre painting, have been seen as either closely comparable to their equivalents set in modern-day or historical Europe, or as also reflecting an Orientalist mind-set in the Saidian sense of the term. Gérôme was the precursor, and often the master, of a number of French painters in the later part of the century whose works were often frankly salacious, frequently featuring scenes in harems, public baths and slave auctions (the last two also available with classical decor), and responsible, with others, for "the equation of Orientalism with the nude in pornographic mode".[15]
[edit]British Orientalism


William Holman Hunt, A Street Scene in Cairo; The Lantern-Maker's Courtship, 1854-61
Though British political interest in the territories of the unravelling Ottoman Empire was as intense as in France, it was mostly more discreetly exercised. The origins of British Orientalist 19th century painting owe more to religion than military conquest or the search for plausible locations for naked females. The leading British genre painter, Sir David Wilkie was 55 when he travelled to Istanbul and Jerusalem in 1840, dying off Gibraltar during the return voyage. Though not noted as a religious painter, Wilkie made the trip with a Protestant agenda to reform religious painting, as he believed that: "a Martin Luther in painting is as much called for as in theology, to sweep away the abuses by which our divine pursuit is encumbered", by which he meant traditional Christian iconography. He hoped to find more authentic settings and decor for Biblical subjects at their original location, though his death prevented more than studies being made. Other artists including the Pre-Raphaelite William Holman Hunt and David Roberts had similar motivations,[16] giving an emphasis on realism in British Orientalist art from the start.[17] The French artist James Tissot also used contemporary Middle Eastern landscape and decor for Biblical subjects, with little attempt at historicising costumes or other fittings.
William Holman Hunt produced a number of major paintings of Biblical subjects drawing on his Middle Eastern travels, improvising variants of contemporary Arab costume and furnishings to avoid specifically Islamic styles, and also some landscapes and genre subjects. The biblical subjects included The Scapegoat (1856), The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple (1860), and The Shadow of Death (1871). The Miracle of the Holy Fire (1899) was intended as a picturesque satire on the local Eastern Christians, of whom, like most English visitors, Hunt took a very dim view. His A Street Scene in Cairo; The Lantern-Maker's Courtship (1854–61) is a rare contemporary narrative scene, as the young man feels his fiancé's face, which he is not allowed to see, through her veil, as an Westerner in the background beats his way up the street with his stick.[18] This a rare intrusion of a clearly contemporary figure into a Orientalist scene; mostly they claim the picturesqueness of the historical painting so popular at the time, without the trouble of researching authentic costumes and settings.
When Gérôme exhibited For Sale; Slaves at Cairo at the Royal Academy in London in 1871, it was "widely found offensive", perhaps partly because the British liked to think they had successfully suppressed the slave trade in Egypt, also for cruelty and "representing fleshiness for its own sake".[19] But Rana Kabbani believes that "French Orientalist painting, as exemplified by the works of Gérôme, may appear more sensual, gaudy, gory and sexually explicit than its British counterpart, but this is a difference of style not substance ... Similar strains of fascination and repulsion convulsed their artists"[20] Nonetheless, nudity and violence are more evident in British paintings set in the ancient world, and "the iconography of the odalisque ... the Oriental sex slave whose image is offered up to the viewer as freely as she herself supposedly was to her master - is almost entirely French in origin",[21] though taken up with enthusiasm by Italian and other painters.
John Frederick Lewis, who lived for several years in a traditional mansion in Cairo, painted highly detailed works showing both realistic genre scenes of Middle Eastern life and more idealized scenes in upper class Egyptian interiors with no traces of Western cultural influence yet apparent. His very careful and loving representation of Islamic architecture, furnishings, screens, and costumes set new standards of realism, which influenced other artists, including Gérôme in his later works. He "never painted a nude", and his wife modelled for several of his harem scenes,[22] which, with the rare examples by the classicist painter Lord Leighton, imagine "the harem as a place of almost English domesticity, ... [where]... women's fully clothed respectability suggests a moral healthiness to go with their natural good looks".[23]
English and French harems

Ingres, Odalisque and slave-girl, 1842



Fernand Cormon, Murder in the Seraglio, 1872



Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904), Pool in a Harem, c. 1876



John Frederick Lewis, The Reception, 1873



Frederick Goodall, A New Light in the Harem, 1884

Other artists concentrated on landscape painting, often of desert scenes, including Richard Dadd and Edward Lear. David Roberts (1796–1864) produced architectural and landscape views, many of antiquities, and published very successful books of lithographs from them.[24]
[edit]Elsewhere
Russian Orientalist art was largely concerned with the areas of Central Asia that Russia was conquering during the century, and also in historical painting with the Mongols who had dominated Russia for much of the Middle Ages, who were rarely shown in a good light. Nationalist historical painting in Central Europe and the Balkans dwelt on Turkish oppression, with battle scenes and maidens about to be raped.
The Saidian analysis has not prevented a strong revival of interest in, and collecting of, 19th century Orientalist works since the 1970s, the latter in large part led by Middle Eastern buyers,[25]
[edit]Orientalist artists
Gustave Boulanger (1824-88)


Algerian shops, by Louis Comfort Tiffany


Samarkand, by Richard-Karl Karlovitch Zommer


The midday meal, Cairo, by John Frederick Lewis
Eduard Charlemont (1848-1906)
Théodore Chassériau (1819–1856)
Richard Dadd (1817–1886)
Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863)
Ludwig Deutsch (1855–1935)
Alphonse Étienne Dinet
Edmund Dulac
Eugène Fromentin (1820–1876)
Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904)
Gustave Achille Guillaumet (1840-1887)
William Holman Hunt (1827–1910)
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780–1867)
Edward Lear (1812–1888)
Frederic Leighton (1830–1896)
John Frederick Lewis (1805–1876)
Jean-Étienne Liotard (1702–1789)
Edwin Longsden Long, a specialist in Ancient Egyptian scenes
Alberto Pasini (1826–1899)
Théodore Ralli (1852–1909)
David Roberts (painter) (1796–1864)
Alexandre Roubtzoff (1884–1949)


The Discussion (Giulio Rosati)
Giulio Rosati (1858–1917)
James Tissot (1836–1902)
David Wilkie (1785–1841)
Jean-Baptiste van Mour (1671–1731)
Ecem Kafadar (1885–1940)
Edwin Lord Weeks (1849–1903)
Adolf Schreyer (1828–1899)
[edit]Literature and music

Authors and composers are not commonly referred to as "Orientalist" in the way that artists are, and relatively few specialized in Oriental topics or styles, or are even best known for their works including them. But many major figures, from Mozart to Flaubert, have produced significant works with Oriental subjects or treatments. For example, Verdi's opera Aida (1871) is set in Egypt as portrayed through the content and the visual spectacle. "Aida" depicts a militaristic Egypt's tyranny over Ethiopia.[26]
In music, Orientalism may be applied to styles occurring in different periods, such as the alla Turca, used by multiple composers including Mozart and Beethoven.[27] Orientalism is also traceable in music that is considered to have effects of exoticism, including the japonisme in Claude Debussy's piano music all the way to the sitar being used in recordings by The Beatles.[28]
In his novel Salammbô, Gustave Flaubert used ancient Carthage in North Africa as a foil to ancient Rome. He portrayed its culture as morally corrupting and suffused with dangerously alluring eroticism. This novel proved hugely influential on later portrayals of ancient Semitic cultures.
The use of the Orient as an exotic backdrop continued in the movies, for instance, those featuring Rudolph Valentino. Later the rich Arab in robes became a more popular theme, especially during the oil crisis of the 1970s. In the 1990s the Arab terrorist became a common villain figure in Western movies.
[edit]Examples
This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

This section may contain excessive, poor or irrelevant examples. You can improve the article by adding more descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for further suggestions. (June 2010)

[edit]Literature
The Travels of Marco Polo, 13th century
Travels of Sir John Mandeville, 14th century invented account of travels.
Christopher Marlowe, Tamburlaine, 1588/89
John Dryden, Aureng-zebe (1675), a heroic drama in theory based on the life of the reigning Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb
Montesquieu — Persian Letters (Lettres persanes) (1721)
William Thomas Beckford — Vathek (1786)
Robert Southey — Thalaba the Destroyer (1801)
Robert Southey — Curse of Kehama (1810)
Lord Byron — The Bride of Abydos, The Giaour, Don Juan and other works
Samuel Taylor Coleridge — Kubla Khan (published 1816)
Thomas Moore — Lalla-Rookh (published 1817)
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe — Westöstlicher Diwan (1819)
Ralph Waldo Emerson — poem Indian Superstition (1821)
Edgar Allan Poe — Tamerlane (1827), Al Aaraaf (1829), and Israfel (1831)
Victor Hugo — Les Orientales (1829)
Gustave Flaubert — Salammbô (1862)
Eça de Queiroz — The Relic (A Relíquia) (1887) and The Mandarin (O Mandarim) (1889)
Anatole France — Thaïs (1890)
Edward FitzGerald - "translation" or adaptation of the Persian Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1859)
Pierre Loti (1850–1923) - highly popular French writer, mostly on his Oriental travels & novels set as far away as Japan and Tahiti
Richard Francis Burton — translation of The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (1885–1888)
Leo Tolstoy — Hadji Murat (1912)
Victor Segalen — René Leys (1922)
Herman Hesse — Siddhartha (1922)
André Malraux — Man's Fate (1934) (La Condition humaine, 1933)
Marguerite Yourcenar's Nouvelles Orientales (1938)
[edit]Opera, ballets, musicals


Costume design for Aida by Auguste Mariette (1871)


Theatre poster for The Mikado
Antonio Lucio Vivaldi — Juditha triumphans (1716)
Georg Friedrich Händel — Tamerlano (1724) and Serse (1738)
Jean-Philippe Rameau — Les Indes Galantes (1735–1736)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart — Die Entführung aus dem Serail (1782)
Gioachino Rossini — Semiramide (1823)
Giuseppe Verdi — Nabucco (1842)
Jacques Offenbach — Ba-ta-clan (1855)
Georges Bizet — Les Pêcheurs de Perles (1863)
Giuseppe Verdi — Aida (1871)
Emmanuel Chabrier — Fisch-Ton-Kan (1875)
César Cui — The Mandarin's Son (1878)
Gilbert and Sullivan — The Mikado (1885)
Alexander Borodin — Prince Igor (1890)
Sidney Jones — The Geisha (1896)
Sidney Jones — San Toy (1899)
Pietro Mascagni — Iris (1899)
Howard Talbot — A Chinese Honeymoon (1896)
Giacomo Puccini — Madama Butterfly (1904)
Richard Strauss — Salome, opera in one act based on Wilde's play (1905)
Giacomo Puccini — Turandot (1926)
Franz Lehár - The Land of Smiles (1929)
Sigmund Romberg, Oscar Hammerstein II & Otto Harbach — The Desert Song (1926) and film (1929)
Richard Strauss — Die ägyptische Helena, opera with libretto by Hugo von Hofmannsthal (1929)
[edit]Orchestral works
Mily Balakirev — Tamara.
Alexander Borodin — In the Steppes of Central Asia; "Polovetsian Dances" from Prince Igor.
Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov — Caucasian Sketches.
Modest Mussorgsky — "Dance of the Persian Slaves" from Khovanshchina.
Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov — Antar; Scheherezade.
[edit]Shorter musical pieces
Mily Balakirev — Islamey
Ludwig van Beethoven—Turkish March from The Ruins of Athens, opus 113 (1811)
Johann Joseph Fux - partita Turcaria, inspired by the 1683 Siege of Vienna by the Turks.[29]
Alexander Glazunov - 5 Novelettes for String Quartet, Op 15
Albert Ketèlbey — In a Persian Market (1920), In a Chinese Temple Garden (1925), and In the Mystic Land of Egypt (1931)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart—Rondo alla turca from Piano Sonata No.11 (K.331)
Sergei Rachmaninoff — Oriental Sketch (1917)
[edit]Theatre


Okito performing the floating ball, 1910.
Tobias Bamberg's magic stage act as "Okito" (Germany, 1893 – United States, 1908)
Oscar Wilde's Salomé (1893, first performed in Paris 1896)
Alexander's mentalism stage act (United States, c. 1890s–1910s)
William Ellsworth Robinson's, magic stage act as "Chung Ling Soo" (United States, 1900–1918)
[edit]Photography


Photograph of Cairo by Francis Frith, 1856.
Roger Fenton
Francis Frith
[edit]Pulp magazines


Cover of Oriental Stories (Spring 1932).
Oriental Stories: A pulp magazine published 1930–34 by Chicago based Popular Fiction specialising in Orientalist fiction. The title was later changed to The Magic Carpet Magazine.
[edit]Films
Intolerance (1916)
Broken Blossoms (1919)
The Sheik (1921)
The Lives of a Bengal Lancer (1935)
The Thief of Bagdad (1940)
My Geisha (1962)
Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984)
Sex and the City 2 (2010)[30]
[edit]Comics
The Adventures of Tintin (1929–1983)
The Upside Down Circle by Don Gilbert (1990).
Dragon and Tiger (2008)
Habibi (2011)


Design by Léon Cogniet for a ceiling decoration in the Louvre depicting the 1798 Egyptian Expedition.
[edit]Eastern views of the West

Much of Said's criticism of Western "Orientalism" is based on particularizing trends also present in Asian works by Indian, Chinese and Japanese writers and artists, in their views of Western culture and tradition. The term Occidentalism has sometimes been used to refer to negative or stereotypical views of the Western world found in Eastern societies.
Although the core of Said's criticism of the concept of "Orientalism" implies a Western view of Eastern culture, some Eastern artists adopted Western styles that particularize Eastern peoples. The Indian painter Ravi Varma painted several works that are virtually indistinguishable from some Western "Orientalist" images.[citation needed]
In the late 20th century many Western cultural themes and images began appearing in Asian art and culture, especially in Japan. English words and phrases are prominent in Japanese advertising and popular culture, and many Japanese anime are written around characters, settings, themes, and mythological figures derived from various Western cultural traditions.[citation needed]
[edit]See also

Arabist
Black orientalism
Circassian beauties
Exoticism
Occidentalism
Chinoiserie
Black Athena
[edit]Notes

^ Tromans, 6
^ from the Latin oriens; Oxford English Dictionary
^ Tromans, 20
^ Harding, 74
^ Tromans, 19
^ Tromans, 24
^ Tromans, 6, 11 (quoted), 23-25
^ The subject of Ives
^ King and Sylvester, throughout
^ Christine Riding, Travellers and Sitters: The Orientalist Portrait, in Tromans, 48-75
^ Harding, 69-70
^ Nochlin, 294-296; Tromans, 128
^ Harding, 81
^ Tromans, 135
^ Tromans, 136
^ Tromans, 14 (quoted), 162-165
^ Nochlin, 289, disputing Rosenthal assertion, and insisting that "there must be some attempt to clarify whose reality we are talking about".
^ Tromans, 16-17 and see index
^ Tromans, 135-136
^ Tromans, 43
^ Tromans, 135
^ Tromans, quote 135; 134 on his wife; generally: 22-32, 80-85, 130-135, and see index
^ Tromans, 135
^ Tromans, 102-125, covers landscape
^ Tromans, 7, 21
^ Beard and Gloag 2005, 128
^ Beard and Gloag 2005, 129
^ Beard and Gloag 2005, 129
^ "Description of contents of album "Alla Turca"". Atmaclassique.com. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
^ Daily Telegraph Review, Guardian review
[edit]References

Beard, David and Kenneth Gloag. 2005. Musicology: The Key Concepts. New York: Routledge.
Harding, James, Artistes Pompiers: French Academic Art in the 19th Century, 1979, Academy Editions, ISBN 856704512
C F Ives, "The Great Wave: The Influence of Japanese Woodcuts on French Prints", 1974, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, ISBN 0-87099-098-5
King, Donald and Sylvester, David eds. The Eastern Carpet in the Western World, From the 15th to the 17th century, Arts Council of Great Britain, London, 1983, ISBN 0-7287-0362-9
Mack, Rosamond E. Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art, 1300-1600, University of California Press, 2001 ISBN 0-520-22131-1
Meagher, Jennifer. Orientalism in Nineteenth-Century Art. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. online, accessed April 11, 2011
Nochlin, Linda, The Imaginary Orient, 1983, page numbers from reprint in The nineteenth-century visual culture reader, google books, a reaction to Rosenthal's exhibition and book.
Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978 ISBN 0-394-74067-X).
Tromans, Nicholas, and others, The Lure of the East, British Orientalist Painting, 2008, Tate Publishing, ISBN 978-1-85437-733-3
[edit]Further reading

Springer, Simon. 2011, Culture of violence or violent Orientalism? Neoliberalisation and imagining the 'savage other' in post-transitional Cambodia. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 34 (3), 305-319.
Weir, David. American Orient: Imagining the East From the Colonial Era Through the Twentieth Century (University of Massachusetts Press; 2011) 304 pages;
[edit]Mainly on art
Jean-Marc Aractingi,"Peintres Orientalistes" Editions Vues d'Orient,Paris,2003
Peltre, Christine. Orientalism in Art. New York: Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.), 1998 (ISBN 0-7892-0459-2).
Rosenthal, Donald A. Orientalism: The Near East in French Painting, 1800–1880. Rochester, N.Y.: Memorial Art Gallery of the University of Rochester, 1982.
Stevens, Mary Anne, ed. The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse: European Painters in North Africa and the Near East. Exhibition catalogue. London: Royal Academy of Arts, 1984
Benjamin, Roger Orientalist Aesthetics, Art, Colonialism and French North Africa: 1880-1930, U. of California Press, 2003
[edit]Literature
Halliday, Fred. "'Orientalism' and Its Critics", British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 20, No. 2. (1993), pp. 145–163.
Irwin, Robert. For lust of knowing: The Orientalists and their enemies. London: Penguin/Allen Lane, 2006 (ISBN 0-7139-9415-0)
Kabbani, Rana. Imperial Fictions: Europe's Myths of Orient. London: Pandora Press, 1994 (ISBN 0-04-440911-7).
Klein, Christina. Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003 (ISBN 0-520-22469-8; paperback, ISBN 0-520-23230-5).
Knight, Nathaniel. "Grigor'ev in Orenburg, 1851–1862: Russian Orientalism in the Service of Empire?", Slavic Review, Vol. 59, No. 1. (Spring, 2000), pp. 74–100.
Kontje, Todd. German Orientalisms. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 (ISBN 0-472-11392-5).
Little, Douglas. American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East Since 1945. (2nd ed. 2002 ISBN 1-86064-889-4).
López-Calvo, Ignacio, ed. Alternative Orientalisms in Latin America and Beyond. Newcastle, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2007 (ISBN 1-84718-143-0)
López-Calvo, Ignacio, ed. One World Periphery Reads the Other: Knowing the "Oriental" in the Americas and the Iberian Peninsula. Newcastle, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009 (ISBN: 1-4438-1657-4)
López-Calvo, Ignacio, ed. Peripheral Transmodernities: South-to-South Dialogues between the Luso-Hispanic World and "the Orient." Newcastle, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012. (ISBN 1-4438-3714-8)
Lowe, Lisa. Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992 (ISBN 978-0-8014-8195-6).
Macfie, Alexander Lyon. Orientalism. White Plains, NY: Longman, 2002 (ISBN 0-582-42386-4).
MacKenzie, John. Orientalism: History, theory and the arts. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995 (ISBN 0-7190-4578-9), google books.
Murti, Kamakshi P. India: The Seductive and Seduced "Other" of German Orientalism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001 (ISBN 0-313-30857-8).
Noble dreams, wicked pleasures: Orientalism in America, 1870–1930 by Holly Edwards (Editor). Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000 (ISBN 0-691-05004-X).
Oueijan, Naji. The Progress of an Image: The East in English Literature. New York: Peter Lang Publishers, 1996.
Schlicht, Alfred, "Die Araber und Europa", Stuttgart, Kohlhammer, 2008
[edit]External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Orientalism
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Orientalist paintings
Look up orientalism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The Orientalist Painters
The Orientalists' Art Works Gallery
Orientalism 25 Years Later, by Said in 2003
"China in Western Thought and Culture" Dictionary of the History of Ideas, etext, University of Virginia
Brian Whitaker, "Distorting Desire", review, Joseph Abbad, Desiring Arabs, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007, from Al-Bab.com, on Reflections of a Renegade blog site
Martin Kramer, "Edward Said's Splash", from his book, Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America, Washington: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2001, pp. 27–43.
Andre Gingrich, "Frontier Orientalism", Camp Catatonia blog
Orientalism in the "History of Art", All Art
Orientalist art and photography, London Times Online
"Alexander Roubtzoff" (1884–1949), Artistic Association Alexander Roubtzoff
"Edward Said and the Production of Knowledge", CitizenTrack
Articles & Analysis on Orientalists' Art Works
Categories: OrientalismTheories of aesthetics
قس ترکی
Oryantalizm ya da diğer adlarıyla Şarkiyatçılık, Şarkiyat; Yakın ve Uzak Doğu toplum ve kültürleri, dilleri ve halklarının incelendiği batı kökenli ve batı merkezli araştırma alanlarının tümüne verilen ortak ad.
Terim, kimi çevrelerce olumsuz bir yan anlamla 18. ve 19.yüzyıllardaki sanayi kapitalizminin gelişme döneminin zihniyeti tarafından şekillendirilmiş Amerikalı ve Avrupalıların Doğu araştırmalarını tanımlamakta kullanılmıştır. Bu anlamda doğuculuk Aydınlanma çağı sonrası Batı Avrupalı beyaz adamın Doğu hakları ve kültürüne yönelik dışarıdan, ötekileştirici, değilleyici ve önyargı dolu yorumlarına işaret etmektedir. Terimi bu bakış açısından ve olumsuz manada kitaplarında -özellikle de Orientalism (1978) kitabında- kullanan en ünlü kişi Edward Said'dir. Bernard Lewis gibi batılı akademisyenler ise Said tarafından kelimeye yüklenen bu olumsuz imaları eleştirmişlerdir.
Konu başlıkları [gizle]
1 Terimin Anlamı
2 Oryantalizmin Doğuşu
3 Sanat ve Edebiyatta Oryantalizm
4 Ayrıca bakınız
5 Kaynaklar
6 Kitaplar
7 Dış bağlantılar
[değiştir]Terimin Anlamı

Kelimenin latince tabanlı diğer dillerde karşılığı "orientalism"dir. Kökeni ise güneşin doğuşunu ifade eden Latince oriens sözcüğüne dayanmaktadır ve coğrafi manada doğuyu göstermekte kullanılmıştır. Kelimenin içerdiği ve Doğu'ya yönelik Batılı önyargısının karşıtı olarak Batı'ya yönelik Doğulu önyargısı anlamında da Oksidentalizm terimi türetilmiştir.
Roma İmparatorluğu döneminde henüz Uzak Doğu kültürleri tam olarak bilinmediğinden günümüzde Orta Doğu denilen bölge Doğu olarak görülmekteydi.
Doğu ile ilgili anlayışlar Batılı kaşiflerin Asya'nın içlerine yaptıkları seyahatlerle değişmeye başladı.
[değiştir]Oryantalizmin Doğuşu

18. yüzyıl Aydınlanma Çağı düşünürleri bazen Doğu kültürlerinin, Hristiyan Batı kültürü karşısında üstün olduğunu savunmuşlardır. Örneğin Voltaire, Zerdüştlük inancının, Hristiyanlığa üstün olan rasyonel Deizm'i desteklediği gerekçesiyle, araştırılmasını teşvik etmiştir. Bazıları da İslam ülkelerinde (Hristiyan Batı'nın aksine) var olan dini hoşgörüyü ve Mandarin Çini'ndeki bilginliği övmüşlerdir. Abraham Anquetil-Duperron, Zerdüştlüğün kutsal metinleri olan Avesta'yı tercüme etmiş, William Jones ise Hint-Avrupa dilleri üzerinde yaptığı araştırmalarda Doğu ve Batı kültürlerinin birbirine karıştığı ilk dönem tarihi bağlantıları ortaya çıkarmıştır. Bununla birlikte bu gelişmeler Fransa ve İngiltere arasındaki Hindistan'ın kontrolü konusundaki çekişme ortamında ortaya çıkmıştı ve sömürge ülkelerindeki toplulukları daha etkili bir şekilde kontrol etme amacını güdüyordu. James Mill gibi liberal iktisatçılar Doğu ülkelerini, medeniyetlerinin statik ve yozlaşmış oluşu nedeniyle eleştirmekteydi. Karl Marx bile "Asya modeli üretim"in değişmezliğinden söz etmekteydi. Hristiyan evanjelistler ise Doğu dinlerinin geleneklerini hurafe olarak görerek yermekteydiler.
Budizm ve Hinduizm üzerine ilk ciddi Avrupa kökenli araştırmalar Eugene Burnouf ve Max Müller gibi araştırmacılarca yapılmıştı. Aynı dönemde İslamiyetle ilgili ilk ciddi araştırmalar yapılmaya başlandı. 19.yüzyılın ortalarında "Oriental Studies" (Doğu Araştırmaları) akademik bir disiplin olarak ihdas edildi. Yine de akademik araştırmalar geliştikçe, "anlaşılmaz ve hilekar Doğulu" gibi ırkçı tavırlar ve yaygın klişeler de artmaya başladı. Büyük Britanya'da da "konuşmaya değmez Türk (Unspeakable Turk)" tabirinin çıkışı aynı döneme rast gelmektedir. Doğu sanatı ve edebiyatı hala "egzotik" ve Klasik Yunan-Roma ideallerine göre düşük görülmekteydi. Doğunun politik ve iktisadi sistemlerinin genellikle feodal "doğu despotizmi" şeklinde olduğu ve kültürel ataletiyle ilerlemeye engel olduğu düşünülmekteydi. Pek çok eleştirel teorisyenler doğuculuğun bu biçimini beyaz adamın daha geniş ve ideolojik sömürgeciliğinin bir parçası olarak görmüşlerdir.
Edward Said'in Görüşleri
Doğu (Orient) tabiri Doğu'yu (yani Batı Avrupa dışında kalan Asya ve Afrika coğrafyalarını) Batılı öğrenim, Batılı bilinç ve Batı imparatorluğu alanına taşıyan politik güçlerce çevrelenen temsiller sistemine işaret eder.
Doğu (Orient) Batılı için vardır ve Batı ile ilişkisin içinde ve onun tarafından inşa edilir. O, Batı'ya yabancı olan diğeri (Other) ve onun altı (inferior) olanı yansıtan bir aynadır.
Oryantalizm, Doğu'ya ilişkin ideolojik önyargılar ve perspektiflerin hakim olduğu, düzenlenmiş (veya Doğululaştırılmış-Orientalized) yazı, vizyon ve araştırma tarzıdır. O, tüm düşünce ve araştırma alanı tarafından ifade edilen Doğu imajıdır.
Oryantal (Doğulu) bu tip düşünmeyi temsil eden kişidir. Erkeği feminen, güçsüz ama yine de garip bir şekilde Batılı, beyaz kadını tehdit eden kişi olarak tasvir edilir. Doğulu kadın ise çarpıcı derecede egzoteik ve hakimiyet altına alınmaya isteklidir(Batı Asya için "cariye", Doğu Asya için "Madame Butterfly" klişeleri örnek verilebilir). Doğulu kültürel ve ulusal sınırları aşan bir klişedir.
Gizli Oryantalizm bilinçsizdir, Doğunun ne olduğu hakkında belirsiz bir kesinliğe sahiptir. Onun temel içeriği statik ve belirlidir. Doğu ayrı, egzantirik, geri, farklı, tensel ve pasif görülür. Despotizme eğilimli ve ilerlemeden uzaktır. Onun ilerlemesi ve erdemi hakkında Batı ile karşılaştırmalı ve Batılı terimlerle hükme varılır ki o her zaman ötekidir, aşağıdır ve fethe açıktır. Dişil bir nüfuz edilebilirlik ve kaygısız bir uysallık sergiler.
Açık Oryantalizm ise üzerine konuşulan ve eylemde bulunulan şeydir. Doğu hakkında değişen enformasyon ve bilgiyi ve Doğucu düşüncede politik kararları içermektedir. O, gizli oryantalizmin söz ve eylemde ifade edilen halidir.
[değiştir]Sanat ve Edebiyatta Oryantalizm



Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres'in Türk Hamamı Tablosu "Le Bain turc," 1862


John Frederick Lewis, Karşılama, 1873
Doğulu Stillerin Taklidi
Rönesans'dan 18.yüzyıl Batılı tasarımcılarına kadar Batı'da Çin seramikleri taklit edilmeye çalışılmış ve bunda da kısmen başarılı olunmuştur. Chinoiserie terimi Batı Avrupa'daki dekorasyonda kullanılan Çin temaları modasını ifade etmektedir.
Ortaçağ, rönesans ve barok sanatlarında Kuzey Afrika Müslümanları ve Türklerin tasvirlerine rastlanmaktadır. Bu eserlerde Doğu egzotik ve yozlaşmış, şehvet düşkünü gösterilmektedir. Viktoryen İngiltere'nin Hristiyanlığın etkisiyle tensel olan her şeye karşı gösterdiği önyargı ve İslam ordularının Hristiyan dünyayı tehdit ettiği inanışından beslenen İslam düşmanlığı sözkonusu eserlerde bugün çeşitli çevrelerde hâlâ devam eden bir Doğu mitinin doğmasına yol açan temaları kullanılmasının önünü açmıştır.
Fransız Resim Akademisi yöneticisi Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres'in Türk Hamamı tablosu Doğu'yu erotikleştirmiş ve Batı'da herkesçe kabul edilen kadın formlarını genelleştirmiştir.
Sanatta oryantelleştirilmiş imajlar 20.yüzyılın ilk yarısında bile var olmaya devam etmiştir. Bunun örneklerinden biri de Matisse'nin doğucu çıplak tablolarıdır. Bu eserlerde Doğu ekseriyetle Batı kültürünün bir aynası olarak veya onun gizli ve gayrimeşru yönlerini ifade etme işlevini görmektedir. Gustave Flaubert'in Salammbô adlı romanında Kuzey Afrika'daki antik Kartaca antik Roma'nın önündeki bir engel olarak gösterilmektedir. Kartaja kültürü romanda ahlaken yozlaşmış ve tehlikeli biçimde cezbedici bir erotizmin yayıldığı bir yerdir. Bu roman daha sonraki antik Sami kültürlerine ilişkin portreleri büyük ölçüde etkilemiştir.
Doğucu sanatta sadece Doğu'nun batı inşası tensel şehvet düşkünlüğü resmedilmemiş aynı zamanda Doğu'nun kan ve kılıç ile simgelenen despotik ve barbar bir doğaya sahip olduğu şeklindeki doğuşu kökeni oldukça eski bir önyargıya dayalı imgeler de bulunmaktadır.
[değiştir]Ayrıca bakınız

Edward Said
Oksidentalizm
Postkolonyalizm
Egzotizm
[değiştir]Kaynaklar

İngilizce Vikipedi Doğuculuk maddesi
Orientalism
[değiştir]Kitaplar

Edward Said, Freud ve Avrupalı Olmayan, Aram Yay. 2004
Edward Said, Haberlerin Ağında İslam, Babil Yay. 200.
Thierry Hentch, Hayali Doğu, Metis Yayınları, 1996.
V.V.Bartold, Rusya ve Avrupa'da Oryantalizm, Küre Yayınları, 2004
Alim Arlı, Oryantalizm, Oksidentalizm ve Şerif Mardin, Küre Yayınları, 2004.
Hilmi Yavuz, Modernleşme, Oryantalizm ve İslam, Boyut Yay. 1998.
Ömer Baharoğlu, Oryantalizm, İslam ve Türkler, Toker Yayınları, 2006.
Bryan S. Turner, Marks ve Oryantalizmin Sonu, Kaynak Yayınları, Ocak 2001
[değiştir]Dış bağlantılar

Uluslararası Oryantalizm Sempozyumu-Sunumlar
Hilmi Yavuz, Oryantalizm Üzerine
E.Said, Islam Through Western Eyes
Edward Said Archive
Edward Said in English
Edward Said İngilizce Vikipedi maddesi
Kimi Oryantalistlerin Eserleri
Hayali Doğu
Kategori: Oryantalizm
قس فرانسه
L'orientalisme est un courant littéraire et artistique occidental du xixe siècle.
Il existe cependant un orientalisme humaniste et classique qui remonte à la fin du Moyen Âge et au début de la Renaissance, lorsque les explorations commencèrent, avec par exemple Marco Polo, et qui atteint son apogée avec les turqueries et le goût oriental du XVIIIe siècle baroque puis rococo. Ce goût oriental hérite aussi du contact de l'époque des Croisades avec le monde islamique. Cet article traite donc plutôt de l'orientalisme à partir du XIXe siècle. C'est un mouvement qui marque l'intérêt de cette époque pour les cultures d'Afrique du Nord, turque et arabe, et toutes les régions dominées par l'Empire ottoman, jusqu'au Caucase. Inspiré par le Moyen-Orient, l'art orientaliste ne correspond en France à aucun style particulier et rassemble des artistes aux œuvres et aux personnalités aussi différentes et opposées qu' Horace Vernet, Ingres, Eugène Delacroix, Théodore Chassériau, Jean-Léon Gérôme, Eugène Fromentin, Félix Ziem, Alexandre Roubtzoff, jusqu'à Auguste Renoir (avec son Odalisque de 1884) ou même Matisse et Picasso au tout début du xxe siècle. C'est donc plutôt un thème vaste qui parcourt les différents mouvements picturaux de cette période.
Cet attrait pour l'ailleurs, la recherche de l'exotisme, influença donc la société. Les salons de la bourgeoisie et de la noblesse donnèrent réceptions et bals costumés sur le modèle fantastique et coloré des cours d'Orient. Certains personnages fortunés prirent la pose pour faire leur portrait revêtus des habits soyeux seyant à un émir.
L'« orientalisme moderne », en peinture, est le prolongement de l'orientalisme dit classique, et prend sa source vers les années 1905/1910 avec la création de la villa Abd-el-Tif, et de son prix dès 1907. Il trouve son plein épanouissement après la Première Guerre mondiale pour se prolonger jusqu'en 1960. Outre cette école, des peintres contemporains des années 1910-1970 ont brillamment repris et continué le motif orientaliste, paysages, nature, scènes de genre, tels Henri Pontoy (1888-1968), Jacques Majorelle (1886-1962), Paul Elie Dubois (1886-1949), Edy Legrand (1892-1970) jusque Gustave Hervigo (1896-1993). Après le démantèlement de l'Empire français et l'indépendance de l'Algérie, il n'y a plus à proprement parler d'École orientaliste, mais des peintres d'inspiration orientaliste, tels que les Français Jean-François Arrigoni-Neri (né en 1937), Roman Lazarev, (né en 1938), ou Patrice Laurioz né en 1959, et l'Algérien Hocine Ziani (né en 1953) tout comme les Marocains Ahmed Balili (né en 1955) ou Abdelkrim Belamine (né en 1964). L'orientalisme du xxie siècle « appartient » désormais à ses inspirateurs, artistes en majorité originaires du Maghreb et plus précisément du Maroc.


L'Odalisque à l'esclave.
Peinture orientaliste du xixe siècle de Dominique Ingres.
Sommaire [masquer]
1 Quelques thèmes
1.1 Le harem fantasmé
1.2 Le rêve d'ailleurs, l'Orient exotique
1.3 Le désert
2 Liste d'artistes orientalistes
2.1 Peinture
2.2 Littérature
3 Voir aussi
3.1 Articles connexes
3.2 Bibliographie
3.3 Liens externes
4 Notes et références
Quelques thèmes[modifier]



La Mort de Sardanapale par Eugène Delacroix, musée du Louvre, Paris
Le harem fantasmé[modifier]
À cette époque, la représentation picturale de la nudité est choquante si elle n’est pas justifiée. Or, le harem se veut être l'expression d'un ailleurs inconnu. Les mœurs y sont différentes et certaines pratiques tolérées (telles que l'esclavage, la polygamie, le bain public, etc.). Cette tolérance entraîne en Europe un phénomène de fascination/répulsion pour le harem (ou sérail), lieu de despotisme (sexuel) par excellence du sultan. En effet, le harem, si éloigné des mœurs et de la culture européennes de l'époque fait l'objet de nombreuses interrogations mais aussi de nombreux fantasmes. Les harems rêvés/fantasmés/imaginés sont souvent peuplés d'odalisques lascivement alanguies, offertes, dans les vapeurs du bain... un thème très prisé notamment par Jean-Léon Gérôme.
Le rêve d'ailleurs, l'Orient exotique[modifier]
La plupart de ces peintures nous dépeignent un orient entre réalité et imaginaire. Tous les artistes ayant, à cette époque, représenté l'Orient n'ont pas obligatoirement voyagé dans les pays du Moyen-Orient. Cependant, la majorité des peintres dit orientaliste tels que Delacroix et d'autres ont entrepris de longs voyages dans les pays du Maghreb pour en rapporter de nombreux carnets de croquis. Croquis dont-ils se servirent pour la composition de leurs peintures une fois revenu au pays.
Cependant, Étienne Dinet abandonne le registre de ses premiers thèmes, en particulier le nu, pour se consacrer à explorer la condition humaine des bédouins. Sa peinture traduit à la fois l'âme de son modèle et les couleurs locales vibrant sous la lumière saharienne. Il en résulte une œuvre esthétique et humaine.
Le désert[modifier]
Celui du Sahara a été largement représenté par les orientalistes français, à tel point que Théophile Gautier affirme en 1859 qu'il y'a « autant de parasols que de paysagistes qu'autrefois, dans la forêt de Fontainebleau »1 . Il sert de décor à des scènes historiques, à la représentation de longues caravanes (Pélerins allant à la Mecque, Léon Belly2, ou en est le motif principal (comme dans Le Sahara de Gustave Guillaumet3. La représentation des tempêtes de sable en fait un motif dramatique(Ludwig Hans Fischer, Bédouins dans une tempète de sable, vers 1891 ou Jean-François Portaels, Le simoun, 18474)
Les conséquences de la chaleur dans le désert ont été dépeintes par Eugène Fromentin vers 1869 dans Au pays de la soif5,6.
Liste d'artistes orientalistes[modifier]

Peinture[modifier]
Par ordre alphabétique
Armand Assus
Jean Désiré Bascoules
Léon Belly
Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant
Maurice Bouviolle
Frederick Arthur Bridgman
Marius de Buzon
Léon Carré
Léon Cauvy
Théodore Chassériau
Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps
Eugène Delacroix
Eugène François Deshayes
Étienne Dinet
Eugène Fromentin
Georges Gasté
Léon Geille de Saint-Léger
Jean-Léon Gérôme
Gustave Guillaumet
Dominique Ingres
Charles Landelle
Jules Laurens
Jean-Jules-Antoine Lecomte du Nouy
Jacques Majorelle
Prosper Marilhat
François de Marliave
Albert Marquet
Jules Migonney
Albert Mom
Maxime Noiré
Guillaume Postel
Henri Regnault
David Roberts
Georges-Antoine Rochegrosse
Giulio Rosati
Alexandre Roubtzoff
Joseph Sintès
Josette Spiaggia
Renée Tourniol
Hocine Ziani
Félix Ziem

Article détaillé : Peinture orientaliste.
Littérature[modifier]
Auguste-Louis-Armand Loiseleur Deslongchamps
Pierre Loti : Aziyadé
Victor Hugo : Les Orientales
Pierre Benoit : L'Atlantide, etc.
Myriam Harry : Passage de Bédouins,Madame Petit-Jardin, etc.
Voir aussi[modifier]

Sur les autres projets Wikimedia :
l’orientalisme, sur Wikimedia Commons
Articles connexes[modifier]
Chinoiseries
Société asiatique
Journal asiatique
Orientalisme scientifique
Société Belge d'Études Orientales
Conte oriental
Bibliographie[modifier]
Collectif, L'orientalisme en Europe de Dalacroix à Kandinsky, Hazan, 2010, 312 p. (ISBN 9782754105064)
Urs App, The Birth of Orientalism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010 ( ISBN 978-0-8122-4261-4)
Irini Apostolou, L'Orientalisme des voyageurs français au xviiie siècle. Une iconographie de l'Orient méditerranéen, Paris, PUPS, coll. « Imago mundi », 2009
Martin Bernal, Black Athena. Les racines afro-asiatiques de la civilisation classique, Paris, PUF, 1996, 612 p.
Thomas Brisson, « La Critique arabe de l’orientalisme en France et aux États-unis », Revue d'anthropologie des connaissances, vol. 2, n° 3, p. 505 à 521
La Danse de l'âme, choix de textes issus du Journal asiatique sur les poètes persans et arabes vus par les orientalistes du xixe siècle, éditions InTexte, Toulouse, 2006 (ISBN 2-9514986-7-5).
Karimi, Kian-Harald, Au temps où ils taillaient leurs idoles – Die Wiederkehr des Gleichen im spätantiken Pastiche von Anatole Frances Thaïs. Ds: Michael Bernsen (Ed.): Orientalismus in der französischen Literatur des XIX. Jahrhunderts. Tübingen (Niemeyer) 2006, p. 223-253 (exemples pour la fonction de l'orientalisme).
Régis Poulet, L'Orient : généalogie d'une illusion, Presses universitaires du Septentrion, 2002, 754 p. (ISBN 2-284-03387-3)
Edward W. Saïd, L'Orientalisme. L'Orient créé par l'Occident, éditions du Seuil, collection « La Couleur des idées », 1978 (ISBN 2-02-079293-1)
Pierre Singaravélou, L'École française d'Extrême-Orient ou l'institution des marges. Essai d'histoire sociale et politique de la science coloniale (1898-1956), Paris, L'Harmattan, 1999, 282 p.
Olivier Weber, Le Grand Festin de l’Orient, Robert Laffont, 2004
Liens externes[modifier]
De Delacroix à Kandinsky, L'Orientalisme en Europe (exposition organisée par les Musées Royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique)
Les peintres orientalistes
Société Belge d'Études Orientales
Notes et références[modifier]

↑ cité par Pinchon P, Le désert, l'épreuve de l'immensité, Dossier de l'art n° 185, mai 2011, p37-41
↑ Notice de Pélerins allant à la Mecque [archive] de Léon Belly, Musée d'Orsay
↑ Notice du Sahara [archive], Gustave Guillaumet, Musée d'Orsay
↑ FRANCOIS .2.137&SearchT1=&Index1=Index18&SearchMethod=Find_1&ItemNr=2 Notice du Simoun [archive] de Jean-François Portaels, Musées Royaux des beaux-arts de Belgique
↑ Notice d'Au pays de la soif [archive], d'Eugène Fromentin, Musée d'Orsay
↑ Pierre Pinchon, Arrêt sur une œuvre, « L'orientalisme, de Delacroix à Matisse », Dossier de l'Art, no 185, Catalogue de l'exposition du Centre de La Vieille Charité de Marseille, Marseille, 2011
Portail des arts Portail de l’histoire de l’art Portail de la littérature
Catégorie : Orientalisme
قس آلمانی
Unter Orientalismus in der Kunst versteht man Darstellungen und (häufig imitative) Verwendungen nah- und fernöstlicher Motive durch europäische Kunstschaffende.
Inhaltsverzeichnis [Verbergen]
1 Orientalismus in der Malerei und den angewandten Künsten
2 Orientalismus in der Architektur
3 Orientalismus in Musik, Literatur und Film
4 Literatur
5 Weblinks
6 Notizen
Orientalismus in der Malerei und den angewandten Künsten [Bearbeiten]



Ingres: Das Türkische Bad, 1863, Louvre, Paris
Darstellungen von „Mohren“ oder „Türken“ finden sich vereinzelt schon ab dem Mittelalter, nicht zuletzt im Zusammenhang mit kriegerischen Auseinandersetzungen. Im 18. Jahrhundert verbreitete sich, von der Rolle des Porzellans als exklusivem Importgut ausgehend die Mode der Chinoiserien in den europäischen Schlössern, das ferne China wurde speziell in der Epoche der Aufklärung zum mythischen Ort der Weisheit. Im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert, nach dem Ende der expansiven Phase des osmanischen Reiches und im Zusammenhang mit den zunehmenden Herrschaftsbestrebungen europäischer Mächte über die islamische Welt verbreitete sich eine geradezu romantisierende Sicht des Orients. Napoleons militärische Kampagne in Ägypten (1798–99) beförderte das Interesse an der Epoche der Pharaonen und eine entsprechende Mode vornehmlich in den angewandten Künsten, der griechische Unabhängigkeitskrieg (1821–1829), der Krimkrieg (1854–1855) und die Eröffnung des Suezkanals (1869) verstärkten das Interesse am Nahen Osten.
Zahlreiche europäische Maler des 19. und beginnenden 20. Jahrhunderts huldigten dem Mythos des Orients als Ort der Sinnlichkeit und Dekadenz. Vor allem die damals höchst beliebten Haremsszenen sind hier zu nennen. Eugène Delacroix, Jean-Léon Gérôme und später Alexandre Roubtzoff widmeten viele ihrer Werke dem islamischen Kulturkreis. Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, Leiter der französischen Académie de peinture, malte 1863 sein berühmtes „Türkisches Bad“. Die Sinnlichkeit solcher Szenen wurde für die europäische Welt durch das orientalisierende Dekor akzeptabel gemacht. Auch im deutschen Kulturkreis gab es zahlreiche „Orientmaler“, etwa Gustav Bauernfeind, Georg Macco, Leopold Carl Müller oder Johann Victor Krämer, die ihr bürgerliches Publikum mit sinnlichen und pittoresken Szenen versorgten. Das Interesse am Orient und seiner Architektur wurde auch durch die Weltausstellungen, namentlich jene von 1855 und 1867, gefördert. Der im letzten Drittel des 19. Jahrhunderts aufkommende Japonismus beeinflusste die Maler des Impressionismus und Künstler wie Vincent van Gogh, der in seinen Anfangsjahren einige Farbholzschnitte von Hiroshige kopierte.
Orientalismus in der Architektur [Bearbeiten]

Hauptartikel:Orientalisierende Architektur
Motive orientalischer Architektur treten bereits als Versatzstücke in zahlreichen Schlossgärten des 18. Jahrhunderts auf. Beispiele sind etwa die „Moschee“ im Park von Schloss Schwetzingen, entsprechende Bauten in Eisgrub (Lednice) oder Kew. Aus dieser Zeit stammen auch zahlreiche „Pagoden“. Auch das um die Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts errichtete Dampfmaschinenhaus in Form einer Moschee zählt zu dieser Art von exotischer Staffage. Auch hier gilt: Der Wegfall unmittelbarer kriegerischer Bedrohung ermöglichte den freieren und zum Teil romantisierenden Umgang mit den Stilelementen benachbarter Kulturkreise. Im ausgehenden 19. Jahrhundert tritt dazu noch das Motiv der wachsenden handelmäßigen Verknüpfung und die Verwendung exotischer Architekturen als Element der Reklame, so bei der Yenidze-Zigarettenfabrik in Dresden, bei der orientalisierenden Architektur der Zacherlfabrik in Wien (der Rohstoff des Zacherl'schen Mottenpulvers stammte aus dem vorderen Orient), und bei der Villa Crespi eines Baumwollindustriellen mit intensiven Handelskontakten in den arabischen Raum.
Generell wurde im Historismus orientalisierendes Dekor als Teil der zur Verfügung stehenden Vorrats an symbolisch einsetzbaren Stilelemente gesehen und für spezialisierte Bauaufgaben angewendet, etwa für Synagogen, für die der „maurische Stil“ eine Zeit lang typisch wurde. Ähnliches galt für die Ritualarchitektur zahlreicher zwischen 1870 und 1930 errichteter Freimaurertempel in den USA, namentlich für Bauten der Shriners. Orientalisches Dekor wurde auch im Bereich der Vergnügungsindustrie eingesetzt und zur Belehrung, namentlich bei Weltausstellungen, in Vergnügungsparks und -lokalen (beispielsweise Vauxhall (London), Tivoli (Kopenhagen) und Bataclan (Paris)), bei Großkinos der Stummfilmzeit (etwa Grauman's Chinese Theatre oder Grauman's Egyptian Theatre) sowie im Rahmen von zoologischen Gärten.

Die "Rote Moschee" im Schwetzinger Schlossgarten war nie als islamisches Gotteshaus gedacht. Sie wurde als Gartenfolly zwischen 1779 und 1793 erbaut.



Die Pumpstation für die Große Fontäne im Park Sanssouci wurde „nach Art der türkischen Moscheen mit einem Minarett als Schornstein“ von Ludwig Persius 1841 bis 1843 erbaut.



Die Große Synagoge in der Dohány-Straße, Budapest wurde 1859 eingeweiht.



Ein Berliner Wahrzeichen im "maurischen" Stil: Die Neue Synagoge (1866 eingeweiht, Innenraum 1938 zerstört)



Villa Crespi, ein 1879 erbautes Haus mit Minarett für einen Industriellen mit Orientkontakten.



Die Spanische Synagoge in Prag wurde 1882-83 mit reichem ornamentalem Schmuck im maurischen Stil ausgestattet.



Die Zacherlfabrik in Wien zählt zu den seltenen Beispielen eines kommerziell motivierten orientalisierenden Historismus in der europäischen Architektur (erbaut zwischen 1888 und 1892)



Orientalismus im Vergnügungspark: Pagode im Tivoli in Kopenhagen.



Das Arabische Café in Düsseldorf (gebaut 1895, abgerissen 1928)



Café Orient war ein gastronomischer Betrieb in Wiesbaden (gebaut 1899, abgerissen 1964)



Die Synagoge in Sofia, ein eindrucksvoller orientalisierender Sakralbau, erbaut 1909.



Das ehemalige Fabrikgebäude der Zigarettenfabrik Yenidze (1909) gehört zu den architektonischen Sehenswürdigkeiten der Stadt Dresden.



Der Tripoli Shrine Temple (Milwaukee), eröffnet 1928.



Das Forum Theater im australischen Melbourne (eröffnet 1929)

Orientalismus in Musik, Literatur und Film [Bearbeiten]

Sowohl in der europäischen Kunstmusik wie in der Gebrauchs- und Unterhaltungsmusik der letzten Jahrhunderte sind Einflüsse des Orients und orientalisierende Modeströmungen festzustellen. Dies betrifft unter anderem die Janitscharenmusik, die bedeutenden Einfluss auf die Entwicklung der europäischen Marschmusik hatte, aber etwa auch das Genre der Oper und Operette - von Wolfgang Amadeus Mozarts Die Entführung aus dem Serail über Giacomo Puccinis Madama Butterfly und Turandot bis zu Franz Lehars Land des Lächelns und Der Mikado von Gilbert & Sullivan. Wie im Bereich der bildenden Künste ist eine häufig romantisierende und sentimentalisierende Verwendung exotischer Motive (etwa der Pentatonik) festzustellen, die Bühnenwerke huldigen häufig dem erotischen Reiz fernöstlicher Weiblichkeit.
Im Bereich der „hohen“ Literatur ist der Orientalismus an Beispielen wie Montesquieus Lettres persanes ausgeprägt, auch Goethes West-östlicher Diwan und das Werk Pierre Lotis wären zu nennen. Bezeichnend ist das orientalisierende Dekor in zahlreichen der (fiktiven) Reisebeschreibungen von Karl May. Diese Tradition findet in der Trivialliteratur des 20. Jahrhunderts und den darauf fußenden Filmen, von Der Tiger von Eschnapur bis zu den ironischen Paraphrasen der Indiana Jones-Serie ihre Fortsetzung.
Wang Hui betont die offenbare Beschäftigung mit orientalischer, insbes. chinesischer und indischer Religion und Sprache bei Herder, Hegel und Kant.[1]
Literatur [Bearbeiten]



Die Erörterung (Giulio Rosati)
Ausstellungskataloge des Ausstellungsclusters Exotische Welten-europäische Phantasien. Stuttgart 1987, darunter vor allem:
Stefan Koppelkamm: Exotische Architekturen im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert. Ernst, Berlin 1987, ISBN 3-433-02274-7, (auch erschienen als: Der imaginäre Orient. Exotische Bauten des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts in Europa).
Gérard-Georges Lemaire: Orientalismus. Das Bild des Morgenlandes in der Malerei. Könemann, Köln 2000, ISBN 3-89508-891-9.
Nadine Beautheac, Francois-Xavier Bouchart: L'Europe exotique. Chene, Paris 1985, ISBN 2-85108-404-6.
Jean-Marcel Humbert: L'egyptomanie dans l'art occidental. ACR, Paris 1989, ISBN 2-86770-037-X.
Kristian Davies: The Orientalists. Western Artists in Arabia, the Sahara, Persia and India. Laynfaroh, New York NY 2005, ISBN 0-9759783-0-6.
Wiiliam D. Moore: Masonic Temples. Freemasonry, Ritual Architecture, and Masculine Archetypes. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville TN 2006, ISBN 1-57233-496-7.
Weblinks [Bearbeiten]

Commons: Orientalismus – Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien
Orientalismus
Ausstellung in der Kunsthalle Krems: Harem - Geheimnis des Orients (PDF-Datei; 63 kB)
Zum Einfluss des japanischen Farbholzschnitts auf van Gogh
Orientalismus-Diskussion und Orientmaler. (Bezug zu Edward Said)
Notizen [Bearbeiten]

↑ The politics of imagining Asia. Harvard UP, Cambridge (Massachusetts) & London 2011 ISBN 0674055195, S. 140ff.
Kategorien: KunststilArchitekturstil
قس
شرق‌شناسی ــ که در زبان فارسی خاورشناسی، در عربی استشراق و در انگلیسی اوریئنتالیسم (Orientalism) نام دارد ــ مطالعه و پژوهش دربارۀ تاریخ، فرهنگ، سیاست و جنبه‌های گوناگون زندگی شرقی است. شرق در ذهن اروپای مسیحی سدۀ سیزدهم میلادی، اسلام است؛ با این‌همه طی قرن‌های متمادی به دلیل تحولات رخ‌داده در عرصۀ علم و اجتماع اروپا، شرق‌شناسی دست‌خوش تغییراتی شد و در مفهوم و مصادق «شرق» و «شرق‌شناسی» دگرگونی‌هایی پدید آمد؛ برای نمونه در عصر سلطۀ کلیسا بر اروپا، شرق‌شناسی ماهیتی جدلی داشت و در دوران اوج استعمار غربیان، به منزلۀ ابزاری بود در دست استعمارگران تا شرق و منافع آن را بهتر بشناسند. در سدۀ بیستم تحولات گوناگون غرب، دگرگونی‌های بیشتری را در هدف‌گذاری، موضوع‌ها و روش تحقیق شرق‌شناسی پدید آورد.
از آنجا که شرق‌شناس پیوسته از منظری بیرونی و غیر معتقد به آیین اسلام، به این آئین نگریسته است، مسلمانان نیز از آغاز آشنایی نسبت به این جریان عکس‌العمل‌هایی را نشان داده و انتقاداتی سهمگین را برآن وارد ساخته‌اند. وقتی شرق‌شناسان در بحث از قرآن، سنت و عقاید اسلامی با نگاهی غیر همدلانه پژوهش‌ می‌کنند، عکس‌العمل مسلمانان نسبت به آنان، طبیعی و درک شدنی است.
مسلمانان در نقدهای خویش از شرق‌شناسی، شیوه‌ها و منابع مشابهی چون «موسوعة المستشرقین» عبدالرحمن بدوی، «المستشرقون» نجیب عقیقی و «نقد آثار خاورشناسان»، مصطفی حسینی طباطبایی را به کار می‌برند. اینک مسلمانان با تحولات گسترده و روز به روز شرق‌شناسی روبه‌رویند؛ امّا از ابزارهای کافی در کسب آگاهی‌های همه جانبه از شرق شناسی سود نمی‌برند. امروزه آثار بسیاری در عرصۀ شرق‌شناسی در غرب نوشته می‌شوند که مسلمانان یا به کلی از آنها بی‌خبرند یا آگاهی جزئی نسبت به آنها دارند.
درکتابشناسی حاضر تلاش شده است با فهرست کردن بعضی از پژوهش‌های مهم شرق‌شناسی، زمینۀ علاقه‌مندی بیشتر مسلمانان به نقد آگاهانۀ شرق‌شناسی فراهم شود.

کتاب:
اِلینگر اکهارد، شرق‌شناسی آلمان در دورۀ ناسیونال سوسیالیسم (نازیسم) 1933-1945، 2006.
اورسلا و کوک، شرق‌شناسی آلمانی: مطالعات خاورمیانه و اسلام از 1800-1945م، 2009.
ـــــــــــــ ، مفهوم خاورمیانه در مطالعات شرق‌شناسی آلمانی: نیمه سده نوزدهم تا نیمه سده بیستم.
آرتورجان آربری، مقالات شرقی: تصویری از هفت دانشمند، 1997.
آلبرت حورانی، اسلام در اندیشة اروپاییان، 1991.
باسورث کلیفورد ادموند، ویراستار، سده شرق‌شناسان انگلیسی، 1902ـ2001م.
برنارد لویس و پی.ام.هولت (ویراستاران)، تاریخنگاران خاورمیانه، 1962.
جان.ام.اِفرون، شرق‌شناسی و نگاه یهودی به تاریخ، ویراستاران: آیون داویدسون کالمر ودرک. ج.پنسلر، 2005.
جورجیو لوی دلّا ویدا، حکایات و سرگرمی‌های عربی و غیرعربی، 1956.
ج.جی.تومر، دانش و خرد شرقی: مطالعات عربی در انگلستان سده هفدهم، 1996.
جی.ای.راسل، علاقه عربی فیلسوفان طبیعی در سده هفدهم انگلستان، 1993.
رابرت اِروین، شرق‌شناسان و دشمنان آنان، 2007. (شرق‌شناسان این کتاب را مهم‌ترین اثر درباب تاریخ شرق‌شناسی می‌دانند که پاسخی به کتاب شرق‌شناسی ادوارد سعید است.)
ژوزف شاخت و باسورث کلیفرد ادموند (ویراستاران)، میراث اسلام.
ژاک واردنبرگ، اسلام در آینه غرب.
عبدالرحیم الأطّوی، الاستشراق الروسی. مرکزالثقافة العربی، مراکش، 2002م.
فرانسوا پاولیون، فرهنگ مستشرقان فرانسوی زبان، 2008.
فرانچسکو گابریلی، تاریخ نگاری عربی ـ اسلامی در ایتالیا، 1975.
ـــــــــــــــــ ، شرق‌شناسی سده بیستم، 1993.
مارتین کرامر(ویراستار)،کشف یهودی از اسلام: مطالعاتی به افتخار جایگاه برنارد لویس.
ماریا جیزس(عیسی) ویگواِرا، مقدمه‌ای بر ویرایش جدید کتاب فرانچسکو کودرا، سقوط مرابطون در اسپانیا، 2004.
نانسی الیزابت گالگر، رویکردهایی به تاریخ خاورمیانه: مصاحبه‌هایی با مورخان خبره خاورمیانه، 1996.
ویلم آدسپیر، ارتباطات شرقی لیدن، 1850-1940م. (مقالاتی دربارۀ اسنوک هروخرونیه، ای.جی ونسینک، جی.اچ کرامرز و مجموعه مقالات مطالعات جهان اسلام به زبان هلندی).
یوهان فوک، مطالعات عربی در اروپا آغاز سده بیستم. (این کتاب با عنوان «تاریخ حرکه الاستشراق»، به عربی ترجمه شده است. ترجمه عمرلطفی العالم، بیروت: دارالمدارالاسلامی، الطبعة الثانیة، 2001م).
مقالات:
ام.منصور، «گزارش شرق‌شناسی ایرلند» 1944.
جان وستسیجن، «دانشمندان هلندی در اسپانیای اسلامی»، 2004.
دیمتری گوتاس، «معرفت پیروز: زندگی فرانتس روزنتال»، 1914-2003.
دی.اس.گویتاین، «داستان زندگی یک دانشمند»، کتاب‌شناسی نوشته‌های پروفسور شلومون داو گویتین، 1975.
راشل اِریه، «مطالعات اسپانیای اسلامی در فرانسه ازآغاز تا هزارسوم»، 2004.
روث رودد، «صدای از صحرا؟: زندگی‌نامه عبری محمد از ِرولین(1932)»، 2009.
ریچارد هیچکاک، «مطالعات عربی ـ اسپانیای در هزاره جدید: انگلستان»، 2004.
کانسوِالو لوپز ـ مورالس، «مطالعات عربی اسلامی در هزاره جدید: ایالات متحده و کانادا»،2004.
گودفرید هاگن، «پیشتازان آلمانی نبرد مقدس: شرق‌شناسان و مطالعات کاربردی شرقی»، مطالعات تطبیقی جنوب آسیا، افریقا و خاورمیانه، ویراستار جنیفر جنکینز، 2004.
مانواِلا مارین، «علوم عربی در اسپانیا: یک حرفه فامیلی»، 1992.
میت پنلاس، «مطالعات عربی ـ اسپانیایی در هزاره جدید: اسپانیا»، 2004.